38. Philosophy, Research, and Education

J. Randall Koetting

University of Nevada, Reno

The concern of teacher educators must remain normative, critical, and even political. Neither the teachers colleges nor the schools can change the social order Neither colleges nor schools can legislate democracy. But something can be done to empower teachers to reflect upon their own life situations, to speak out in their own ways about the lacks that must be repaired, the possibilities to be acted upon in the name of what they deem decent, humane, and just (Greene, 1978, p. 71).

38.1 Introduction: Philosophy and Personal Struggle

It has been a struggle writing this chapter. Eisner (1991) helps me to understand part of the nature of my struggle. He states that for some researchers within the social sciences, philosophy is often viewed as an "academic distraction." It is a distraction because:

Philosophy is nagging. It conjoles students into asking questions about basic assumptions, it generates doubts and uncertainties, and, it is said, it keeps people from getting their work done. Many appear to believe that it is better to leave the unanswerable questions and unsolvable problems alone and get down, to brass tacks. I regard such attitudes as short‑sighted. Core concepts in the social sciences are philosophical in nature: Objectivity; Validity, Truth, Fact Theory, Structure. Why neglect to examine them even if their examination will never yield a single unassailable meaning9 (pp. 4‑5).

Trying to deal with the "big picture" in education gets complicated. There is a greater sense of urgency felt today to come up with answers to educational problems. Philosophy takes too much time. There is the sense of "Let's get down to brass tacks." Like Eisner, I experience philosophy as a study that does nag at my thinking because, at its best, it has me question and doubt. Because I question and doubt, sometimes it keeps me from getting my work done. Also, I agree with Eisner that core concepts in the social sciences are philosophical in nature. And this is my struggle.

My perspective is that of teacher‑student, one who has found much value in the study of philosophy that has helped me to better understand issues in education. My main struggle has been in determining how to convey to the reader my strong sense of the importance of philosophy for research and philosophical inquiry. How should I discuss and analyze, in a philosophic way, philosophy, education, and research? In this chapter, I want to argue for the critical importance of using a philosophical perspective in studying education. I will do this by situating my discussion of philosophy, inquiry, and education within a general discussion of educational research. I will then examine education as a moral undertaking, and therefore the need for not only continued inquiry into the process of schooling but also the need for foundational (theoretical), diverse, and critical questioning. I will argue that the study of philosophy/phdosophy of education will provide a framework needed for inquiry into schooling that is foundational (theoretical), diverse, and critical. I will briefly look at the notion of theory and the importance of having or taking a theoretical (foundational) perspective. Modes of philosophical inquiry will be discussed throughout the chapter.

38. 1. 1 Education and Research

I would like to begin this chapter with a brief definition and discussion of what I would consider a mainstream position of what constitutes educational research (Anderson, 1990). 1 do this in order to situate my discussion of philosophy, research, and education:

Research in education is a disciplined attempt to address questions or solve problems through the collection and anaIysis of primary data for the purpose of description, explanation, generalization, and prediction (Anderson, 1990, p. 4).

Anderson's (1990) discussion in his first chapter entitled "The Nature of Educational Research" expands this definition. He views educational research as primarily problem solving as opposed to testing of hypothesis. This research is based on "systematic and objective observation, recording and analysis"; it seeks to find "general principles and theories which can lead to the prediction of behaviors and events in the future"; its goals are "understanding, prediction, and ultimately control"; controlled, accurate observation and recording information allows for prediction to be "accurately measured and assessed"; the researcher should be "unbiased" and strive for "objectivity" (p. 5). Furthermore, "research is a scientific process which assumes that events in the world are lawful and orderly" and that the laws are "discoverable." This lawfulness provides the meaning of determinism and the

researcher acts in the belief that the laws of nature can be understood and ultimately controlled to at least some degree. In a nutshell, educational research is the systematic process of discovering how and why people in educational settings behave as they do (pp. 4‑5).

As I stated, I believe this is a mainstream position on educational research.

Anderson also identifies "four different levels at which educational research takes place: descriptive, explanatory, generalization, and basic or theoretical" (1990, p. 7). It is within the basic/theoretical level that Anderson places philosophy as an associated discipline:

While philosophy does not typically incorporate primary source data, empirical evidence, or observation, it is included as an associated discipline since it relies on similar approaches to other forms of theoretical research (p. 7).

At the same time, in a previous passage, philosophy is not considered research within the definition quoted earlier:

There is another domain of investigation which some scholars consider research. It includes philosophical analysis, especially conceptual analysis, the situation of educational issues within a philosophical tradition, the examination of epistemological and axiological assumptions, criticism, and so forth. I view such activities as scholarship, but not as research in the sense in which it is used in this text. The principal difference is the lack of primary data in those approaches which rely entirely on critical thinking and analysis of existing literature and theory (Anderson, 1990, p. 5).

The above discussion places philosophy outside legitimate educational research and identifies it as "scholarship." The opening quote by Maxine Greene identifies what is implicit in the writing of this chapter, namely, the belief that the study of philosophy and philosophy of education is most critical for educators and educational researchers. The study of philosophy/philosophy of education can provide the possibility for the empowering practices that Maxine Greene identifies: reflection on one's own life situation, one's own voice with which to speak, and the possibility for action based on decency, humaneness, and justice.

38.1.2 Education as a Moral Undertaking

The study of philosophy/philosophy of education can provide. gieawr insightand understanding into the complexities of schooling. By complexities of schooling I mean that educational practice does not "just happen," does not take place as an isolated activity. Wingo (1974) identifies the complexities of the school setting:

Behind every approach to teaching method, behind every plan for administrative organization of the schools, behind the structure of every school curriculum stands a body of accepted doctrine‑assumptions, concepts, generalizations, and values. In short, every practical approach to the art of teaching is shored up by some constellation of accepted ideas. Very often, however, the very presence of this body of ideas goes unnoticed. Its acceptance is largely unconscious and based on tradition (p. 6).

Let me be more explicit about this.

As educators, we are concerned with philosophical issues and perspectives in our daily work within classrooms. As we debate curricular issues, as we decide educational policy, as we work with students and their "behavior," as we "test" students' "knowledge," etc., we are concerned with philosophy. However, as Wingo stated in the above quote, the underlying ideas behind our practice may go unnoticed, may be unconscious, may be unquestioned. The importance of philosophical inquiry in education is exactly at this point: It can illuminate, inform, or call into question the taken‑forgranted notions that we have. Philosophical inquiry and analysis can help conceptual clarification, as well as inform our praxis, and vice versa.

The Western tradition in philosophy has wrestled with the following questions: What is real (metaphysics/ontology)? How do we know (epistemology)? What is of value (axiology)? Understanding and identifying the nature of reality, what counts for knowledge, and making judgments as to what is of value are all philosophical positions. I will use the term philosophical inquiry to mean a form of questioning into (to inquire into) the nature of reality, knowledge, and value. This notion of inquiry is the beginning of doing philosophy, of inquiring into the nature of things (Greene, 1974).

The three questions/positions regarding the nature of reality, knowledge, and value also identify the nature of the concerns of schooling as well as form the basis for philosophical inquiry. If this is so, the lives of educators/researchers are rooted in philosophical and moral struggles and questions, and consequently they cannot view their work as a neutral enterprise. Their lives are rooted in philosophical, moral, and nonneutral (political) realities because educators, schools, communities, interest groups, legislators, religious organizations, and private and corporate enterprise presuppose some conception of reality that they wish to transmit, or pass on to the young. As Childs (1950) stated:

... deliberate education is never morally neutral. A definite expression of preference for certain human ends, or values, is inherent in all efforts to guide the experience of the young. No human group would ever bother to found and maintain a system of schools were it not concerned to make of its children something other than they would become if left to themselves and their surroundings (p. 19).

School practice reflects the interests of divergent groups. The metaphysical/ontological, epistemological, and axiological questions of philosophy are educational questions as well. Research in education reflects this. The differing groups mentioned have interests, and those interests identify the political nature of education (see 1.4).

School curricula reflect multiple world views. Curricula reflect the possibilities of humankind. Curricula can raise critical questions about the nature of the social world and how we know that world, or it can dogmatically repress such exploration. To chose a specific curriculum is to chose from among many possibilities. Curricular decision making is hence a political decision. To say that "... education is a moral undertaking involves choices that make a difference in the individual and social lives of human beings" (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 18).

The concept of moral as used here is from Child's work (1950) Education and Morals. He uses the term quite specifically regarding educators' intervention in the lives of their students. Moral refers to:

... the more elemental fact that choices among genuine life‑altematives are inescapably involved in the construction and the actual conduct of each and every educational program. These choices necessarily have consequences in the lives of the young, and through them in the life of the society. Viewed from this perspective, education undoubtedly ranks as one of the outstanding moral undertakings of the human race (p. 20).

Furthermore, education is rooted in philosophical and political realities. The philosophical and political roots come in when we are required to make choices from among many possible world‑views (see endnote 1).

If education is a moral undertaking, as Childs rightly suggests, it is encumbent upon educators to "inquire into their work," to question their theory and practice. Philosophical inquiry provides various ways of doing that.