11. Research on Learning from Television

Barbara Seels
Louis H. Berry
Karen Fullerton
Laura J. Horn

University of Pittsburgh

This chapter' summarizes a body of literature about instructional technology that is unique not only in its depth but also in its breadth and importance. A recent search of articles in the Educational Clearinghouse on Information Resources (ERIC) since 1966 yielded 17,500 citations on television; while a similar search in Psychology Abstracts produced 1,882 citations about television since the mid-1980s. It is fitting, therefore, that there be a chapter in this handbook which reviews how instructional technology has used research on television as well as how the field has contributed to this body of research.

11. 1 Nature of the Chapter

In order to address research on learning from television, it is necessary to define this phrase. For the purposes of this chapter, learning is defined as changes in knowledge, understanding, attitudes, and behavior due to the intentional or incidental effects of television programming. Thus, learning can occur intentionally as a result of programming that is planned to achieve specific instructional outcomes or incidentally through programming for entertainment or information purposes.

(A glossary of terms related to learning from television is given at the end of the chapter. The first time a term defined in the glossary appears, it will be hyperlinked.)

Three elements of the television viewing system are covered: the independent variable or stimulus, mediating variables, and the resulting behavior or beliefs. The television viewing experience is based on the interaction of these three components of the viewing system, which are usually described as programming, environment, and behavior. Each of these elements encompasses many variables; for example, message design and content are programming variables. Viewer preferences and habits are environmental variables that mediate. Individual differences are also mediating variables in that they affect behavior. Learning and aggressive or cooperative behaviors are dependent variables.

For this review to serve an integrative function, it was necessary to be selective in order to comprehensively cover many areas. Several parameters were established to aid in selectivity. The first decision was that film and television research would be integrated. Although they are different mediums, their cognitive effects are the same. The technologies underlying each medium are quite different; however, for instructional purposes, the overall appearance and functions are essentially the same, with television being somewhat more versatile in terms of storage and distribution capabilities. Furthermore, films are frequently converted to television formats, a fact that blurs the distinction even more. Research on learning from television evolved from research on learning from motion pictures. Film research dominated until about 1959 when the Pennsylvania State University studies turned to research on learning from television. Investigations related to one medium will be identified as such; however, effects and other findings will be considered together. Classic research on both film and television is reviewed.

Nevertheless, relatively little space is devoted to film research because an assumption was made that there were other reviews of this early research, and its importance has diminished. It seemed more important to emphasize contributions from the last 20 years, especially since they are overwhelming the consumer of this literature by sheer volume.

Another decision was that although some important international studies would be reported, the majority of studies covered would be national. This was essential because the international body of literature was gargantuan. Those who wish to pursue international literature are advised to start with a topic that has existing cross-cultural bibliographies, such as the Sesame Street Research Bibliography (1989) available from Children's Television Workshop (CTW).

In addition, it was necessary to determine what to include and exclude in relation to the other chapters in the handbook. All distance learning (see Chapter 13) and interactive multimedia studies (see Chapter 29) were excluded because other chapters cover the newer technologies. Some media literacy will be covered because it is a very important vaniable in learning from television. Nevertheless, it is assumed that aspects of visual literacy (i.e., visual learning and communication) will be covered throughout the handbook (see Chapters 16 and 26), not just in this chapter.

It was further decided that a variety of methodological approaches would be introduced, but that discussion should be limited because the final section of this handbook covers methodologies (see Chapters 39, 40, 41, 42,). Methodological issues, though, will be addressed throughout this chapter.

Our final decision was that this chapter would make a comprehensive effort to integrate research from both mass media (see sections 4.4.1 to 6) and instructional television. Although other publications have done this, generally one area dominates, and consequently the other is given inadequate attention. It was our intent to start the process of integrating more fully the literature from mass media and instructional television.

11. 1. 1 Relevance to Instructional Technology

Research on learning from television encompasses more than formal instruction. This body of research addresses learning in home as well as school environments. Many of the findings are relevant to the instructional technologist; for example, research on formal features yields guidelines for message design (see Chapter.26). Instructional technologists can both promote students' learning to regulate and reinforce their own viewing and educate parents and teachers about media utilization.

In addition, instructional technologists are also responsible for recommending and supporting policy that affects television utilization. The literature provides support for policy positions related to (a) control of advertising and violence (see 11.7.4, 11.2.3), (b) parent and teacher training (see 11.5.3.5, 11.7.2.1), (c) provision of special programming (see 11.7), and (d) media literacy education (see 11.8.2).

Researchers in instructional technology can determine gaps in the theoretical base by using reviews such as this. In the future, more research that relates variables studied by psychologists to variables studied by educators will be required in order to identify guidelines for interventions and programming.

11. 1. 2 Organization of the Chapter

The chapter is organized chronologically and categorically in order to cover both research on the utilization of television in education and mass-media research on television effects. The beginning of the chapter chronologically traces the evolution of research in this area. Other sections, which are organized by subject, review theoretical and methodological issues and synthesize the findings. A glossary of terminology related to television research is given at the end of this chapter.

The chapter starts with a historical overview. After this introductory background, the chapter turns to sections organized categorically around major issues, some of which are independent or mediating variables, and others of which are effects. The first section synthesizes research on message design and mental processing. It reviews how formal features affect comprehension and attention. The next issue section deals with the effects of television on school achievement. Turning to what is known about the effects of the family, viewing context, viewing enviromnents, and coviewing are reviewed next. The effects of television on socialization are explored through attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. The next section covers programming and its utilization in the classroom and home. Ile final section covers theory on media literacy and mediation through critical viewing skills. The organization of the chapter follows this oudine:

1. Historical overview
2. Message design and cognitive processing
3. School achievement
4. Family-viewing context
5. Attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
6. Programming and utilization
7. Critical-viewing skills
8. Glossary of terms

It was necessary to approach the literature broadly in order to synthesize effectively. Despite the disparity in types of research and areas of focus, most of the studies provided information about interactions that affect learning from television.

Footnotes:

The authors would like to acknowledge the significant contribution that our reviewers have made to this article: Keith Mielke, senior research fellow, Children's Television Workshop; Marge Cambre, associate professor, Ohio State University; and Dave Jonassen, professor, Pennsylvania State University. In addition, Mary Sceiford of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and Ray McKelvey of the Agency for Instructional Technology gave valuable advice. Barbara Minor assisted with searching through the resources of the Educational Clearinghouse on Information Resources (ERIC). Many students at the University of Pittsburgh also helped with the research.