Acknowledgements

So many people contributed to this effort.

The most important contributors were the authors, without whom there would be no handbook. Wedging chapters like these into overcommitted schedules required a strong commitment to the field and its propagation. These people are highlighted in the following section, "About the Authors."

Next, I want to acknowledge the contributions of the associate editors-John Belland, Marcy Driscoll, Frank Dwyer, Don Ely, Bob Kozma, Rhonda Robinson, and Bob Tennyson-who helped to shape this book and reviewed proposals, outlines, and chapter drafts. They also are highlighted in the next section, "About the Editors."

Producing a handbook as comprehensive as this one requires massive amounts of feedback, which were provided by a distinguished panel of expert reviewers, including Steve Alessi, Allen Avner, Dan Barron, Marge Cambre, Richard Carlson, John Cooper, David Crookall, Gayle Davidson, Chris Dede, Jack Dempsey, Walter Dick, Nick Eastmond, Elizabeth Ellsworth, Larry Frase, George Gropper, Bob Grover, Nick Hammond, Simon Hooper, Michael Huberman (special kudos from the author), Al Januszewski (two chapters), Jane Johnsen, Mable Kinzie, Randy Koetting, Raymond Kulhavy, David Lebow, John Leggett, Deborah Lieberman, Craig Locaitis, Jim Lockard, Richard Mayer, Barb McCombs, Bonnie Meyer, Keith Mielke, Bill Milheim, LaVerne Miller, Mike Moore, Gary Morrison, John Murphy, Randy Nichols, Charlie Reigeluth (two chapters), Susan Reilly, Bob Reiser, Steve Ross, Paul Saettler, David Salisbury, Gavriel Salomon, Peter Seidman, Pat Smith, Bill Taylor, Sigmund Tobias, Martin Tessmer (two chapters), Susan Tucker, John Wedman, Brent Wilson, Bill Winn, and Merlin Wittrock.

I would also like to acknowledge a number of people whom I cannot identify. At the 1993 Professors of Instructional Design and Technology conference at Bloomington, a number of faculty and students devoted a large portion of the conference to reviewing my proposals, brainstorming, and discussing the structure of the book. The Table of Contents was born there and refined later by the associate editors. My thanks to those people (only a few of whom I can recall-who said episodic memories were more resistant than semantic?) for their energy and wisdom.

A couple of people helped me sort through and mark up the mountains of manuscripts: Mauri Collins and Catlyn Gregory. Their contributions helped me to remain sane. A final check of the page proofs was provided by Karen Peters, a doctoral student in the Instructional Systems program, a future researcher, and the very first graduate student to read the Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology.

My thanks and appreciation to all.

DAVID JONASSEN

About The Editors

Marcy P. Driscoll is professor of instructional systems and educational psychology at Florida State University. She is the author or coauthor of four textbooks in learning and instruction, including Psychology of Learning for Instruction, which won the 1995 Outstanding Book Award in Instructional Development from the Association of Educational Communications and Technology, and, with Robert M. Gagne, Essentials of Learning for Instruction. She has also published numerous articles in professional journals on learning, instructional theory, and educational semiotics. Professor Driscoll received her A.B. magna cum laude from Mt. Holyoke College and her M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in educational psychology from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

Francis M. Dwyer is professor of instructional systems in the College of Education at the Pennsylvania State University. He has served as president of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology and the Intentional Visual Literacy Association. He has conducted more than 200 research studies related to visual learning, which have resulted in the publication of three texts directly related to the design and use of visualization in the instructional process. He received IVLA's Research Award for 25 years of sustained research contributions to the field of visual learning.

Donald P. Ely is professor emeritus, instructional design, development, and evaluation, Syracuse University. He has been an adjunct professor at the University of Twente in the Netherlands since 1980 and is currently a visiting professor in the Department of Educational Research at Florida State University. He served as program director for dissemination at the National Science Foundation (1992-93). His special interests are educational change, curriculum development in educational technology, the transfer of media and technology in developing nations, and the history and definition of the field of educational technology.

David H. Jonassen is professor and head of instructional systems at the Pennsylvania State University. Dr. Jonassen has previously taught at the University of Colorado, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Syracuse University, Temple University, and the University of Twente, and consulted with businesses, universities, and other institutions around the world. He has authored or edited 16 books and hundreds of articles, papers, and technical reports. His current research focuses on designing constructivist learning environments, cognitive tools for learning, knowledge representation methods, and individual differences and learning.

Robert B. Kozma is the director of the Center for Technology in Learning. For 20 years prior to assuming the directorship of CTL, Dr. Kozma was a professor at the School of Education and a research scientist at the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan. He directed or was coprincipal investigator of 19 projects accounting for over $6.5 million in revenue from federal agencies, foundations, and corporations. He directed the Program for Learning, Teaching, and Technology for the National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning (NCRIPTAL), and he also founded and directed the EDUCOM/NCRIPTAL Higher Education Software Awards. His research has focused on media theory, the use of technology to improve teaching, the dissemination of educational innovations, and the development, use, and effectiveness of advanced computer-based tools, multimedia, and hypermedia software systems in the sciences and in English composition. He has authored or coauthored more than 40 academic works that include chapters, encyclopedia entries, books, and articles appearing in major academic journals. He has given more than 75 presentations and invited addresses at national and international conferences. And he has been the lead designer on several advanced multimedia and hypermedia educational software packages.

Rhonda S. Robinson is professor of instructional technology in the department of Leadership and Educational Policy Studies at Northern Illinois University in decal, where she directs the master's degree and internship programs and teaches courses in research, design, deve1Opment, and visual literacy. Rhonda has her Ph.D. in educational communications from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. She has been teaching at MU for 16 years. Her research interests are in using interpretive and qualitative methods to look at technology applications in education and business. Her recent research includes a study on educational technology curriculum issues, an historical analysis of educational films, and an action research project involving the integration of technology into elementary school curricula.

Robert D. Tennyson is professor of educational psychology at the University of Minnesota and president of the Consortium of Courseware Engineering. He is editor of a professional journal, Computers and Human Behavior, as well as serving on editorial boards for four other journals. His research and publications include topics on problem solving and concept learning, intelligent systems, testing and measurement, instructional design, and advanced learning technologies. Recently he has directed NATO-sponsored workshops and advanced-study institutes on automated instructional design and delivery. He has authored over 100 journal articles and has written numerous books and book chapters.

About the Authors

Brockenbrough S. Allen is professor of educational technology at San Diego State University, where he teaches advanced graduate courses on educational product design, multimedia, and the psychology of technology-based learning. He also advises corporations and government agencies on effective use of learning and performance technologies. Allen holds a bachelor's degree in ecology and an M.A. in education (emphasis in science education) from the University of California, Berkeley, and a Ph.D. in education from the University of Southern California, with specializations in instructional technology and communications. Allen's work as an instructional designer began in the late 1960s with his invention of a patented simulation game. Created in association with naturalist Robert Stebbins, "The Evolution Game" is still published in Europe and used widely in high school and college biology courses. Following a stint in New York as a consultant on high-techno1Ogy office communications systems and multi-image production design, Allen worked for several years as a teacher-counselor and media producer before beginning doctoral work at the University of Southern California in 1979. There, he helped design early instructional authoring systems for interactive video, studied adoption patterns on ARPANET (forerunner of the Internet), and conducted research on metacognitive skills and computer-assisted instruction. In 1982, he joined the SDSU faculty and cofounded one of the first graduate programs for training multimedia designers. Allen writes widely on instructional design, is a consulting editor for several journals, including Educational Technology Research & Development, and lives near a mountain and a lake with his wife, Barbara.

Vanessa Allen-Brown is an assistant professor in the College of Education at the University of Cincinnati. She teaches both history and philosophy of education. Her research focuses on the life histories of African-American women educators. In particular, she is interested in understanding the role of schools, family, and the community in encouraging achievement in black women.

Jane H. Anderson (Ph.D., Ohio State, 1993) was picking flowers off a recently planted strawberry patch in her organic garden in the hills of Southern Oregon just before writing this biography. She believes picking these first flowers will enhance later fruit production. Dr. Anderson is not sure what this has to do with educational technology, but her former experience as an English teacher suggests that, if you think hard enough, you may find some connection.

Gary J. Anglin is associate professor of instructional systems design at the University of Kentucky. He received his Ed.D. in instructional systems technology from Indiana University. His research interests are in the area of visual learning. His most recent edited book is Instructional Technology: Past, Present and Future (2d ed.). He is an active member in the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, and is a consulting editor of the journal Educational Technology Research and Development and was on the editorial board of the journal. He has taught graduate courses in instructional design and development, and instructional computing.

Bela H. Banathy is a researcher, author, and educator. Until his retirement, he was senior research director at the Far West Laboratory for Research and Development, where he directed over 50 projects in the course of 2 decades. He is president of the International Systems Institute, a nonprofit research and educational agency, and professor emeritus of systems science at the Saybrook Graduate School. He is a past president of the International Society for the Systems Sciences and is now on the board of trustees of the society. He is president of the International Federation of Systems Research, an agency of 25 national systems organizations. He serves on the editorial board of several international journals. He authored several books, numerous chapters in books, and over 100 articles and research reports.

Louis H. Berry is associate professor in the Program in Instructional Design and Technology at the University of Pittsburgh He has researched and published in the area of instructional message design, particularly with regard to the effects of color and complexity in visual learning. This interest currently extends into the cognitive aspects of computer screen design in multimedia. Dr. Berry has been active in the Association for Educational Communications and Technology and is a past president of the Research and Theory Division of that organization.

Roberts A. Braden is a professor emeritus of instructional technology at California State University, Chico. He was twice a member of the board of directors of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, and for 8 years has been the book review editor of that association's research journal Educational Technology Research and Development He is also a consulting editor for the Development section of ETR&D and a contributing editor of Educational Technology. In addition to his numerous columns, articles, and other publications, he has edited a dozen books on visual literacy and is a past president of the International Visual Literacy Association. Roberts is a graduate of Fresno State, Radford University, and the University of Arkansas. His professional interests are systematic instructional design, instructional design models, formative evaluation, design of instructional visuals, and the research/theory literature of the field. He has written on all of those topics.

John K. Burton is a professor of instructional technology at Virginia Tech. He has been involved in research in the area of learning for over 20 years. For the last 10 years, his work has become increasingly focused on the use of computer technology in education and training. His most recent book, which he coedited with W. Michael Reed at West Virginia University and Liu Min at the University of Texas at Austin, is Multimedia and Megachange. He currently serves on the editorial boards of Computers in the Schools, the Journal of Research and Development in Education, and the Journal of Research on Computing in Education.

Rebecca P. Butler is an assistant professor of educational media and library science at Eastern Tennessee State University. Her expertise is in the area of historiography, including oral history. Her latest publication is "Gender Perceptions in Instructional Technology" in the Journal of Visual Literacy.

Peggy Cole is assistant coordinator of accountability and instructor of English at Arapahoe Community College in Colorado. She has published on topics in constructivist learning and elaboration theory. She is currently interested in strategies that use computers to assist teaching and learning composition.

Donald J. Cunningham is currently professor of education, cognitive science, and semiotic studies at Indiana University at Bloomington. He is also professor of the Department of Learning, Development, and Communication at the University of New England, Armidale, Australia (on leave). He is the founder of the Centre for Research into the Educational Application of Multimedia at the University of New England. He pursues an active program of research and development in computer-mediated instruction and is a frequent contributor to the development of semiotic/constructivist theories of learning and instruction. During the 1990-91 academic year, he was Garfield Weston Visiting Professor at the University of Ulster at Collaring, Northern Ireland, where he collaborated with the Language Development and Hypermedia Research Group. In his recent publications, Cunningham and his colleagues have described the development and testing of a variety of multimedia systems in primary, secondary, and higher education.

Suzanne K. Damarin is professor, College of Education, the Ohio State University.

Ann De Vaney is professor of curriculum and instruction and director of the graduate program in educational communications and technology at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Her research incorporates literary models for the analysis of educational media texts. Her latest publication is an edited book, Watching Channel One, from SUNY Press.

Andrew Dillon is an associate professor of information science at Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. A human factors psychologist by background (M.A., Cork, 1987; Ph.D., Loughborough, 1991), he researches human-computer interaction (HCI) and cognitive ergonomics, with particular emphasis on the issue of usability. His current research focuses on the perception of shape and structure in information environments and the application of social and cognitive science to the design of usable interactive artifacts. He has authored widely in the area of HCI, most recently publishing Designing Usable Electronic Text (Taylor & Francis, 1994). He currently serves on the editorial boards of International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, and Hypermedia.

Marcy P. Driscoll is professor of instructional systems and educational psychology at Florida State University. She is the author or coauthor of four textbooks in learning and instruction, including Psychology of Learning for Instruction, which won the 1995 Outstanding Book Award in Instructional Development from the Association of Educational Communications and Technology, and, with Robert M. Gagne, Essentials of Learning for Instruction. She has also published numerous articles in professional journals on learning, instructional theory, and educational semiotics. Professor Driscoll received her A.B. magna cum laude from Mt. Holyoke College and her M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in educational psychology from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

Thomas M. Duffy is currently professor of education and cognitive science and director of the Corporate and Community Education Program at Indiana University at Bloomington. His work has focused on the implications of constructivist theory for the practice of instructional design and for the use of technology to support learning. His current work focuses on the design of problem-based learning environments from a constructivist perspective. This has included the design and development and evaluation of PBL environments. He has recently coauthored Online Help: Design and Evaluation and coedited Constructivism and the Design of Instruction, as well as Designing Constructivist Learning Environments.

Karen Fullerton is a doctoral candidate in the Program in Instructional Design and Technology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Education. She has been designing, writing, and producing award-winning media programs for over 15 years, specializing in educational videos and teleconferences for managers and health care workers. Her research interests include computer and television screen design. She currently teaches preservice teachers how to use computer applications and multimedia resources in the classroom. She has also taught courses in instructional technology, video production, and media management for Duquesne University and the University of Pittsburgh.

R Scott Grabinger is associate professor and program leader of information and learning technologies in the Division of Technology and Special Services at the University of Colorado at Denver. In this position, he teaches classes in developing learning environments, telecommunications and computer-mediated communications, hypermedia authoring and applications, and message design and production. His research and publication interests include the educational applications of technology-supported learning environments, hypermedia, expert systems in education, and computer screen design.

Barbara L. Grabowski is associate professor of education in the Instructional Systems Program at the Pennsylvania State University. She had previously been an associate professor at Syracuse University and associate director of the Center for Instructional Development and Evaluation at the University of Maryland University College. While at Maryland, she developed many hours of computer-based instruction and designed an award-winning distance education program in nuclear science. Her current research interests are in the areas of generative learning, large-group college classroom learning, and using emerging technologies in generative ways.

Margaret E. Gredler is professor of educational psychology and research at the University of South Carolina. Her focus is the application of instructional design criteria to the design of games and simulations. In addition to numerous articles on games and simulations, she is the author of Designing and Evaluating Games and Simulations: A Process Approach, published by Kogan Page.

Charlotte Nirmalani Gunawardena is associate professor of distance education and instructional technology in the Training and Learning Technologies Program at the University of New Mexico. She teaches graduate courses in distance education, instructional design, adult learning, and cross-cultural teaching and learning. She is a reviewer for The American Journal of Distance Education and is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Educational Telecommunications. In 1994, she was awarded a Regents Lectureship by the University of New Mexico for excellence in teaching, research, and service. She has published and made presentations at international and national conferences on topics related to distance education. Her current research examines learning styles, learner-centered learning, cognitive strategies, social presence, and collaborative learning in interactive distance learning systems.

Kathleen M. Hannafin is associate professor of education and director of educational design and development at the Medical College of Georgia. Her expertise and interests center around teaching and learning with emerging technologies. She has extensive experience in designing and developing innovative classroom models for science, mathematics, humanities, and social sciences curriculum.

Michael Hannafin is professor of instructional technology and eminent scholar of technology-enhanced learning at the University of Georgia, where he directs the Learning and Performance Support Laboratory. He has worked extensively in the theoretical and applied sides of both "traditional" computer-aided instruction and technology-supported learning environments that employ technology in seeking, manipulating, constructing, and connecting concepts and ideas. He has served as editor and guest editor, as well as served on the editorial boards of leading scholarly journals in technology and learning, including the Journal of Computer-Based Instruction} Educational Technology Research and Development, and Journal of Educational Research

James Hartley is professor of applied psychology at the University of Keele, Staffordshire, U.K. He obtained his first degree in psychology in 1961 from the University of Sheffield, and his Ph.D. from the same institution some 3 years later on the topic of programmed instruction. His main research interests today are in written communication, with special reference to typography and layout, but he is also well known for his research into teaching and learning in the context of higher education. Professor Hartley is a prolific writer and has so far published 12 books and over 200 papers. He is a fellow of both the British Psychological Society and the American Psychological Association.

Denis Hlynka holds the rank of professor in the Department of Curriculum: Mathematics and Natural Sciences at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. He has published widely in the field of educational technology, including two books. The Videotex/Teletext Handbook (1985) was cowritten with Paul Hurly and Matthius Laucht; Paradigms Regained: The Uses of Illuminative, Semiotic, and Post-modern Criticism as Modes of Inquiry in Educational Technology (1991) was coedited with John Belland of Ohio State University. His papers deal with the intersection of technology and the humanities. A postmodern perspective permeates his thinking. Dr. Hlynka has served as consultant to the Ethiopian Nutrition Institute from 1983-85. He has presented papers in Australia, India, Ethiopia, the United States, and Canada and served a 3-year term as editor of the Canadian Journal of Educational Communication. In 1993-94, he was the acting director of the Centre for Ukranian Canadian Studies at the University of Manitoba.

Robert E. Holloway is an associate professor at the Center for Excellence in Education at Northern Arizona University. He has been on the faculty at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, served as director for Project Advance, Center for Instructional Development, at Syracuse University, and as audiovisual coordinator in Guam, M.I. He has been professionally active on the National Forum on Information Literacy, and is past president of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. His avocational service interest is as electronic coordinator in the Pacific Southwest District of the Unitarian-Universalist Association. His most recent publication, with Jason Ohler, is a chapter on distance education in the 1995 edition of Instructional Technology: Past, Present, and Future. His primary interest is in technological change and development.

Simon R. Hooper is an associate professor of education in the Instructional Systems and Technology Program at the University of Minnesota. His research applies learning theory to instructional design and examines how to use technology effectively in education. He has served as guest editor and on the editorial board of Educational Technology Research and Development and is a consulting editor for Computers in Human Behavior. His papers have been published in journals such as Educational Technology Research and Development, Journal of Educational Research, and Educational Psychologist.

Laura J. Horn is a doctoral student in instructional design and technology at the University of Pittsburgh. She has taught primary grades in both public and private schools and is concerned with the appropriate utilization of technology in the learning of young children. Currently, she is exploring aspects of the interaction between educational technologies and the commercial sector.

David W. Johnson is a professor of educational psychology at the University of Minnesota, where he holds the Emma M. Birkmaier Professorship in Educational Leadership. He is codirector of the Cooperative Learning Center. He received a master's and a doctoral degree from Columbia University. He is a past editor of the American Educational Research Journal and has published over 300 research articles and book chapters. He is the author of over 40 books and has received numerous national awards for his research and teaching. Currently listed in Marquis's Who's Who in the World, he is a leading authority in social interdependence, conflict resolution, the social psychology of education, organizational development and change, and experiential learning. For the past 30 years, he has served as an organizational consultant to schools and businesses. He is a practicing psychotherapist.

Roger T. Johnson is a professor of curriculum and instruction, with an emphasis in science education, at the University of Minnesota. He holds an M.A. degree from Ball State University and an Ed.D. from the University of California in Berkeley. He is the codirector of the Cooperative Learning Center. He is the author of numerous books, research articles, and book chapters and has received a number of national and international awards for his research and teaching.

David H. Jonassen is professor of instructional systems at the Pennsylvania State University. He is widely published in the areas of Constructivism, instructional design, hypertext and hypermedia learning environments, and computer-based learning, including Computers in the Classroom: Mindtools for Critical Thinking. His errant research focuses broadly on knowledge representation and the design of learning environments, which include cognitive tools. He has taught previously at the University of Colorado, University of North Carolina, Temple University, Syracuse University, and the University of Twente in the Netherlands.

Stephen T. Kerr is professor of education in the College of Education at the University of Washington. He received his Ph.D. in education from the University of Washington. His research on educational technology has included studies of teachers' acceptance and use of technology in classroom settings, studies of roles and role changes in education as influenced by technology, the development of instructional design skills by practitioners, and way-finding in complex information systems. He has also examined how information technology has encouraged educational reform in the schools of Russia and the former Soviet Union. He edited the recent National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) Yearbook on Technology and the Future of Education. He is currently studying models of technology and its effects on the popular imagination.

Asit S. Kini is a research associate in the College of Education at Texas A&M University, where he directs the Office of Computer and Network Support. His doctoral dissertation was in the area of human learning and development, with special emphasis on educational computing, instructional design, and visualization. In the past, he has served as a visiting assistant professor at the college. In his present role, he has been instrumental in the implementation of state-of-the-art technology at the college. His current research interests include design of networked interactive hypermedia documents and spatial and conceptual metaphors for data organization and storage.

Nancy Nelson Knupfer is associate professor of educational computing design and telecommunication at Kansas State University. Dr. Knupfer has been involved with education for approximately 25 years, first as a teacher of elementary, junior high, and high school, and now at the university level. A unique feature of Dr. Knupfer's experience was her involvement with starting a high school in a remote Alaskan village. She completed her doctorate at the University of Wisconsin at Madison and was a faculty member of Arizona State University prior to joining the faculty at Kansas State. Dr. Knupfer has been involved with the design, production, implementation, and evaluation of interactive, technology-based instructional materials for both local and distance education within industry, government, and education. She is involved with social and political issues concerning schooling and technology, visual literacy, alternative theories of instructional design, critical theory, and cognition. She has published numerous articles in professional journals and recently edited a book, Computers in Education: Social, Political, and Historical Perspectives (1993), Hampton Press, with Dr. Robert Muffoletto. Dr. Knupfer joined AECT in 1983,iS an active member of several professional organizations, and is president of the International Visual Literacy Association. Today, her adventurous spirit and interest in multicultural issues is evident in her international research about educational uses of the Internet.

J. Randall Koeffing is associate professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Nevada, Reno. He received his Ph.D. in C&I from the University of Wisconsin at Madison, an M.A. in educational foundations from St. Louis University, and a B.A. in philosophy from LaSalette Major Seminary College. His areas of research and study include critical theory, curriculum theory, and pedagogy; the social foundations of education; issues that fall under the general heading of multicultural education; and the foundations of technology and education.

Kathy A. Krendl is presently professor of telecommunications and dean of the School of Continuing Studies at Indiana University. She received her Ph.D. in communication from the University of Michigan. Her research interests and publications have focused on the use of media in instructional sections. She has served as a visiting scholar at Children's Television Workshop and is currently working on research evaluating the effectiveness of distance learning programs.

W. Howard Levie (1933-89) was a professor of instructional systems design at Indiana University. He received his Ph.D. in mass communications from Indiana University. His research focus was in the area of instructional message design and visual learning. He has published numerous articles and, along with Malcolm Fleming, was coeditor of the book Instructional Message Design. He has written and directed numerous motion pictures and was head of the production department of the AV Center at Indiana University. He has taught graduate courses in research methodology and instructional design and development.

Susan G. Magliaro is associate professor of curriculum and instruction at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in educational psychology and graduate courses in instructional design and tests and measurements. Her two interrelated areas of research include change, instructional design, and program development. Among her projects are the development of a reflective and responsive model for teaching instructional design, and the design and implementation of a major curricular, instructional, and assessment change effort in a local school division.

Robin Mason is head of the Centre for Educational Technology at the Open University, where she carries out research and evaluation of new teaching technologies. She has authored several books on computer conferencing and other communication technologies, and has designed and taught on-line conferencing courses for teachers and trainers. She has worked on a range of European-funded projects involving telecommunications technologies, and has designed and organized several international conferences about these technologies.

Nancy Maushak is assistant professor of education at William Penn College in Oskaloosa, Iowa. She teaches undergraduate courses in elementary education and instructional technology and supervises education practicum experiences. Her current research focus is on distance education and the diffusion of innovations.

Marina Stock McIsaac is professor of educational media and computers at Arizona State University. She is on the editorial and research review boards of the International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, The American Journal of Distance Education, and Educational Technology. McIsaac's research focuses on the applications of technology to education, particularly distance learning in cross-cultural settings. She has published widely in the literature on distance learning. McIsaac is the recipient of two Fulbright Senior Scholar/Researcher awards to lecture and conduct research in Turkey at Anadolu University's Open Education Faculty, and has worked as a consultant with the National Institute for World Trade. McIsaac is past president of the Research and Theory Division and president-elect of the International Division of AECT. She has lectured widely in Europe, Australia, Asia, and the Middle East, and is an educational technology discipline evaluator for the United States Council for International Exchange of Scholars (CIES).

Cliff McKnight is reader in information studies at Loughborough University. A psychologist by background (B.Sc. 1973, Ph.D. 1976, Brunel University), he has an interest in human-computer interaction since working with the late Christopher Evans in 1971. His current research focuses on the impact of information technology on scholarly communication, particularly those issues relating to the development and use of digital libraries. He currently serves on the editorial board of the International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Hypermedia, and the Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia.

Hilary McLellan is a partner with McLellan Wyatt Digital, a multimedia and virtual-reality development and consulting company. She received her Ph.D. in educational technology from the University of Wisconsin. Dr. McLellan's research and design interests include situated learning, interactive story design for electronic media, and social interactions in electronic learning environments. She is an internationally recognized expert concerning virtual reality, especially as it applies to education. In 1994, she received the International Visual Literacy Association Research Award for her work concerning virtual reality and education. Dr. McLellan served as an advisory editor for Virtual Reality: An International Directory of Research Projects and is a contributing editor of Educational Technology and Virtual Reality Report. In 1993 and 1994, she oversaw the selection of the annual Awards for the Advancement of the Virtual Reality Industry. Dr. McLellan is the author of over 75 publications concerning multimedia and virtual reality and has spoken at many conferences, workshops, and universities in the United States and Europe. She is the editor of the forthcoming book Situated Learning Perspectives.

G. F. McVey is a professor emeritus at Boston University, where during the period 1973-91, as a member of the Department in Educational Media and Technology in the School of Education, he taught graduate-level courses and engineering in display systems design and ergonomics in instructional systems design. He currently teaches part time in the same program and serves as research advisor on studies related to ergonomics and educational facilities planning and design. Since 1978, he has also served as president of McVey Associates, Inc. (d.b.a. MAI Consultants) of Newton, Massachusetts a firm specializing in ergonomics and AV facilities design and engineering, and serving educational, training, and conference organizations in the U.S. and overseas. To date, he has served as the principal planning and design specialist on more than 50 projects, ranging in size from a one-room training center for Allied Chemical in Richmond, to a $50-million information center for print and nonprint media for the National Center for Financial Information, Ministry of Finance Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. All of his past and current projects are characterized by an emphasis on ergonomics and a strict application of research findings in their design. In 1993, one of his projects, the NYNEX Learning Center in Marlboro, was selected as one of the top-10 training centers in the U.S. by Presentation Products Magazine. In 1994, he received the Tradeline Oracle of Architectural Design Award. He received his M.Ed. in educational television production from Boston University and his Ph.D. degree from the University of Wisconsin at Madison, with a specialization in environmental design and human performance (ergonomics). He is an active member of numerous professional organizations and, for the past 3 years, has served on the national committee to revise the 1988 ANSI/ HFES VDT Workstation Design Standard.

David M. (Mike) Moore is a professor of instructional technology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He has been involved in research in the area of visual learning for almost 25 years. He has published more than 80 articles in professional journals primarily in the area of visual research. His most recent book, which he coedited with Francis Dwyer, is Visual Literacy: A Spectrum of Visual Learning. He is also a past president of the International Visual Literacy Association.

Gary R. Morrison is a professor of instructional design and technology at the University of Memphis, where he teaches graduate courses in instructional design and technology. He has written over 90 papers on instructional design and computer-based instruction, an instructional design textbook, and 10 textbook chapters. He has designed a variety of media materials, including television and radio programs that were broadcast nationally, and more recently he has designed a number of multimedia units for introductory chemistry. He is the associate editor of the research section of Educational Technology Research and Development.

Edna Holland Mory is assistant professor of instructional technology at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, where she also serves as the director of the Donald K. Watson School of Education Instructional Technology Center. She received her Ph.D. in instructional systems from Florida State University in 1991. She was awarded the 1991 Dean & Sybil McClusky Research Award, the 1992 Educational Technology Research and Development Young Scholar Award, and the 1993 Robert M. Gagne Award for her research in the area of feedback in instruction. Her other research interests include technology in education, the use of interactive multimedia for learning, teacher planning, school restructuring, and student motivation. She is an active member of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, the American Educational Research Association, and the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.

Robert Muffoletto is associate professor of education, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls.

Robert J. Myers is a senior instructional designer at the NASA Classroom of the Future, Wheeling, West Virginia. Dr. Myers is currently a principal investigator on two major projects. The first is a grant from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center to develop earth science curricula featuring NASA's repository of remote-sensing databases. The second is a service-learning project to create opportunities for students with visual and hearing impairments to take part in simulated space missions. Dr. Myers has published widely on K-12 instructional technology infusions, hypermedia, and problem-based learning.

Wayne A. Nelson is associate professor of instructional technology and chair of the Department of Educational Leadership at Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville. He is currently a member of the editorial review board for the Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, the Journal of Research on Computing in Education, and the Journal of Educational Computing Research. He has conducted research and published in the areas of learning with hypermedia systems, interface design, intelligence tutoring systems, and the processes of instructional design. His current research is focused on the use of computer technology to support the development of reflective practice by teacher education students.

Randal G. Nichols is an associate professor of education at the University of Cincinnati, where his teaching and essays mainly reflect critical approaches to understanding education and educational technologies. He teaches technology, curriculum, and ethics courses. He suspects that overrationality and willfulness have gotten us into nearly irredeemable states of education, society, and ecology. His positive sustenance comes from fishing and the music of Alison Krauss.

Richard G. Otto is an independent research psychologist and consultant specializing in advanced applications of educational technology and multimedia publishing. He holds a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from Seattle University and a Ph.D. from Syracuse University in philosophy of natural sciences. From 1971 to 1980, Otto was associate professor at Metropolitan State College in Denver, Colorado, where he chaired the Department of Philosophy before taking a position as a researcher at the National University of Mexico. From 1984 to 1989, he served as director of the Mexican-American Cultural Institute in Guadalajara. Otto's research and development at SDSU has focused on visualization and scientific imagination, distance education, multimedia publishing, and the use of case-based learning in technical training. His recent design work has focused on the transformation of print-based Spanish language textbooks to CD-ROM-based multimedia.

Ok-choon Park is a senior research psychologist at the Advanced Training Methods Research Unit, the U.S. Army Research Institute (ARI). He is an editorial board member of several journals. He has also been serving as an advisor for the National Research Council Postdoctoral and Senior Research Associates Program and the Washington Metropolitan Area University Consortium Research Fellow program at ARI. After receiving his Ph.D. in instructional psychology and technology from the University of Minnesota in 1978, he worked as a faculty member at the State University of New York at Albany and as an instructional researcher and consultant at Control Data Corporation until he joined ARI in 1985. For the last few years, he has conducted research on the characteristics of mental models and applications of visual displays in media-based instruction.

Joseph Psotka is a research psychologist for the Research and Advanced Concepts Office at the Army Research Institute. He earned a Ph.D. degree in cognitive psychology from Yale University in 1975. He served as an advisory member of the General Officer Steering Committee on AI and Robotics. He has more than 30 published papers in refereed journals and numerous presentations at scientific conferences. In 1988, his edited volume on Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Lessons Learned was published. He edited a book on Intelligent Instruction by Computer: Theory and Practice with Marshall Farr in 1991. His research currently focuses on the application of cognitive science to learning and instruction, with a special emphasis on the use of virtual-reality technologies for immersive tutoring systems.

Tillman J. Ragan is a professor in the instructional psychology and technology program at the University of Oklahoma. He received his Ph.D. in instructional technology from Syracuse University in 1970. Ragan is author of five books, including Instructional Design with P. L. Smith, and numerous articles on instructional technology, and he has been a columnist for Educational Technology magazine. He has directed and contributed to research projects sponsored by IBM (technology effectiveness), the United States Air Force (cognitive styles), and the Army (training effectiveness). He has served on many committees and held the titles of president of Research and Theory Division and of the Division of Instructional Development of AECT, vice president of IVLA, and cochair of the Professors of Instructional Design Technology conference. His area of research and teaching is instructional technology, with specific interests in instructional design, learner characteristics, and applications of computer technology to instruction.

Thomas C. Reeves is professor of instructional technology at the University of Georgia, where he teaches program evaluation, instructional design, and research methods. In addition to numerous presentations and workshops in the United States, he has been an invited speaker in Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Finland, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Switzerland, Taiwan, and the Netherlands. His current research interests include evaluation of instructional technology for education and training, mental models and interactive multimedia user interface issues, electronic performance support systems, and instructional technology in developing countries.

Kim Reid is a graduate student in the Department of Telecommunications at Indiana University. She is interested in the interrelationship of communications and learning, and more specifically involved in children's informal learning from TV. In 1995, she was a graduate research associate at the Children's Television Workshop.

John Richardson is a research fellow at the HUSAT Research Institute at Loughborough University of Technology. As a psychologist, his primary research interest concerns the opportunities and problems surrounding the impact of digital technology on written communication. His previous work has looked at the transference of reading skills from the printed page to screen-based systems and at the limitations of hypertext presentations.

Rita C. Richey is professor and program coordinator of instructional technology at Wayne State University. She has conducted research and published in the areas of instructional design theory and trends and training design for adult learners. Her most recent book is a coauthored volume, Instructional Technology: The Definition and Domains of the Field. Currently, she is conducting developmental research with an emphasis on contextual analysis and studying the impact of training on organizational productivity. In addition, she is completing a book on the contributions of Robert M. Gagne and beginning a systematic exploration of the knowledge base of instructional design.

Lloyd P. Rieber is an associate professor of instructional technology at the University of Georgia. He is interested in visualization, cognitive psychology, and constructivistic orientations to instructional design. His research has focused on using computer animation in the design of interactive learning environments. His most relevant research is about the integration of computer-based microworlds, simulations, and games. He is a past president of the Association for the Development of Computer-Based Instructional Systems (ADCIS).

Warren B. Roby is director of the Language Learning Resource Center and assistant professor of foreign languages and literatures at Washington State University. He teaches French, Spanish, and pedagogy classes. He is also the coordinator of the university's Self-Instructional Language Program through which the study of Arabic and Hindi, with the assistance of a tutor, is organized. He has helped produce instructional videotapes and live teleconferences. Dr. Roby has coauthored several articles on the application of technology to foreign-language instruction. He also has published on the teaching of intercultural communication.

Alexander Joseph Romiszowski is currently research professor in instructional design, development, and evaluation at Syracuse University. He also works regularly overseas, holding the post of visiting professor/researcher at the "School of the Future" Research Institute at the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and currently conducting projects and consulting missions to educational and human resources development organizations in Indonesia, Venezuela, Singapore, and the Netherlands. He has published extensively on the topics of instructional design and development and the use of new media and technologies in education. Most of his research and development projects are concerned with aspects of the application of technology-based training and education solutions, in both conventional and distance education contexts. His recent research has focused on the use of hypermedia and computer-mediated communication environments, often in combination, for the conducting of small-group collaborative learning methods such as case study and discussion, on-line and at a distance. This research is part of a wider agenda that is concerned with cost-effective methods of distance education for the development of critical-thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

Steven M. Ross is professor of educational psychology and research and associate director of the Center for Research in Educational Policy at the University of Memphis. He teaches graduate courses in educational statistics, research, and adaptive instruction. He is the author of three textbooks and over 100 journal articles in the areas of educational technology, computer-based instruction, and at-risk learners. He is the editor of the research section of Educational Technology Research and Development.

Ernest Z. Rothkopf is Cleveland E. Dodge Professor of telecommunications and education at Columbia University's Teachers College. Prior to his present appointment, he served as head of the Learning and Instruction Research Department at AT&T Bell Laboratories. An experimental psychologist by training, he sees himself as trying to build bridges between the learning laboratory and teaching technology. He has written many articles on learning and instructional theory. His current research is focused on the interaction between analytic processes and episodic memory in problem solving. He has been awarded the Edward Lee Thorndike Medal for Psychological Contribution to Education by the American Psychological Association.

Wilhelmina C. Savenye is an associate professor of learning and instructional technology in the Division of Psychology in Education at Arizona State University. She has also served on the faculty at San Diego State University and at the University of Texas at Austin, and as an evaluation and instructional technology consultant with educational organizations, the military, corporations, botanical gardens, and museums. She serves as a reviewer for several educational technology research journals and recently served as chair of the special-interest group for instructional technology in AERA. Her research is in the areas of instructional design, design of interactive multimedia environments for learning, and use of both quantitative and qualitative methods for studying the use of interactive technologies in training and teaching.

Barbara Seels is associate professor and coordinator of the Program in Instructional Design and Technology at the University of Pittsburgh. She received her Ph.D. degree in mass communications from Ohio State University and her M.S. in instructional communications from Syracuse University. She has coauthored Exercises in Instructional Design and Instructional Technology: The Definition and Domains of the Field, and edited Instructional Design Fundamentals: A Reconsideration. Her research interests and publications are in the areas of instructional design, visual literacy, and theoretical development of the field of instructional technology.

Valerie J. Shute is a research psychologist at the Armstrong Laboratory, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. As part of her basic research on individual differences in learning, she designs, develops, and evaluates intelligent tutoring systems, then uses these controlled lTS environments to systematically test for aptitude-treatment interactions. Her current research focuses on student modeling, cognitive diagnosis, and remediation, and has resulted in a broad and powerful new paradigm called SMART (Student Modeling Approach for Responsive Tutoring). Dr. Shute has written numerous journal articles and chapters on a range of topics, coedited a book on cognitive processes and automated instruction, and is on the editorial board of four journals.

Michael Simonson is professor of curriculum and instruction and associate director for research of the Research Institute for Studies in Education in the College of Education at Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. Dr. Simonson teaches courses in instructional technology and has published over 50 research papers. He has been editor since 1977 of the Proceedings of Research and Development Papers presented at the annual conferences of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, and has written five books and monographs on educational technology and educational computing. His research interests deal with the impact of instructional technology on attitude formation and change, distance education, and computer anxiety.

Patricia L. Smith is an associate professor in the instructional psychology and technology program at the University of Oklahoma. She received her Ph.D. in instructional systems from Florida State University in 1982. Smith is the author of two books, including Instructional Design with T. J. Ragan, and numerous journal articles on computer-based instruction and instructional design. She has directed and served on a variety of research projects, including a recent IBM-sponsored project on technology effectiveness. She has been on the board of directors of the Research and Theory Division and the Division of Instructional Development of AECT, as well as having served as president of the Research and Theory Division. Other positions include being cochair of the Professors of Instructional Design Technology conference in 1992 and president of the Instructional Technology Special Interest Group of AERA in 1993. Her area of research and teaching is instructional design, particularly the design of instructional strategies, the design of print-based instruction, and instructional feedback.

Daniel Snyder has recently completed his master's degree in educational technology at the University of Washington. His research interests include how various psychological theories inform and direct instructional decision making. He has extensive experience in technology and training in the U.S. Navy. He currently teaches computing at a community college.

Robert L. Towers is an associate professor of technology at Eastern Kentucky University. He received his Ed.D. in instructional systems design from the University of Kentucky. Previously, he earned a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the University of Kentucky and a master's degree from Eastern Kentucky University, and worked as an engineering consultant. His most recent coauthored book is Robotics Technology. He has taught graduate and undergraduate courses in quality control, electronics, and automated manufacturing.

Steven D. Tripp is a professor in the Center for Language Research at the University of Aizu, in Aizu-Wakamatsu, Japan. He was previously at the University of Kansas and is on the editorial board of Educational Technology, Research and Technology. His current research interests focus on the applications of technology, especially computers, to language learning. He is working on various applications of the World Wide Web to the teaching of English for Special Purposes (ESP) in the field of computer science.

Dian Walster is an assistant professor of library media at the University of Colorado at Denver. She was the 1993 AASL/Highsmith research winner for a project developing alternative assessment for integrating content standards with information literacy skills. Her research areas are information access and attitudes toward information and information technologies. Recently, she published a book for practitioners, Managing Time for School and Public Librarians.

William H. Ware is a general research analyst for Michigan-based Consumers Power Company, where he directs the company's customer satisfaction research. He is currently a doctoral candidate in telecommunications at Indiana University and has lectured both there and at Florida State University in the areas of advertising and communication research. His research interests include analysis of television content, mass-communication processes and effects and media imperialism.

Ron Warren (M.S., Colorado State University) is a graduate student in telecommunications at Indiana University. H, has previously worked as a high school English teacher and as a lecturer in speech communication at Colorado State University. His principal research interest is media's role in socialization. His previous work has examined the use o instructional videos in high schools, violent television con tent, and research on children and media. He has also worked on distance education evaluation for a statewide network of Indiana colleges and universities.

Michael D. Williams is a lecturer in educational technology in the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. He received his Ph.D. i instructional systems at the University of Minnesota, and has taught instructional design and computer-based instruction at San Diego State University, the University of Minnesota, and St. Thomas University. He has published several articles in the area of learner-control in relation to computer-based instructional designs. Current research interests focus on investigating the cross-cultural elements impacting the use and effectiveness of computer-based instructional technologies in schools.

Brent Wilson is associate professor of information and learning technologies at the University of Colorado at Denver. He has published widely on topics in instructional design theory, including constructivist learning environments, collaborative learning communities, and the Internet as a learning tool. Recently, he has become interested in how people choose to make use of learning resources and how technology can stimulate change within a learning setting.

William Winn is professor of educational technology in the College of Education, University of Washington. He holds a secondary appointment in educational psychology and is an affiliate faculty member in the Department of Technical Communication, College of Engineering. His research includes the study of how people learn from maps and diagrams and ways in which cognitive and constructivist theories of learning can be used as the basis for instructional design. He served as editor of Educational Communication and Technology Journal from 1983 to 1989.

Andrew R. J. Yeaman is an independent scholar and consultant located in Westminster, a suburb of Denver, Colorado. He is also president of the Industrial Training and Education Division of AECT. Previously, he worked as a media technician, as a school media specialist, and as an assistant professor. First educated in England, he gained an A.A. degree as a media technician from Bellevue Community College, and later received the Ph.D. in educational communication from the University of Washington. He has published over 50 scholarly reports, chapters, and articles on reading from computer displays, the ergonomics of human-computer interaction for students and trainees, utilizing cultural anthropology, interpreting computer anxiety as a myth produced by researchers, and applying postinstructural thinking to instructional media design, analysis, and theory. Dr. Yeaman also edited the Educational Technology February 1994 special issue on social responsibility. The topic of his current research is the intersection of culture, thought, communication, and technology. He asks, "What is the connection between computers and civilization?