This chapter considered some of the environmental, ergonomic, and display system factors that contribute to the effectiveness of leaming environments in general, with particular emphasis on classroom and conference room settings, and workstations where educational media, including VDTs, are used extensively. When such factors are prudently integrated into a learning environment's design, they have gained acceptance and appreciation Eroin both students and faculty (McVey, 1979). Trainers and trainees working in similarly designed environments also recognize and appreciate their features.

Figure 36-22 is a photograph of an auditorium I recently designed in collaboration with Mark Sweeney of OmniArchitecture Inc., Charlotte, North Carolina. 'Ibe photograph shows many of the ergonomic features discussed in the preceding pages of this chapter. Such features include the following:

- NASF of 2,928 SF, serving a total of 219 occupants, 28 in movable castered seats behind tables, 189 in fixed ergonomically appropriate manner-and where doing so may not be possible, then guide their charges in adapting teaching activities and materials accordingly..

For educational researchers, it is hoped that this chapter has provided the kind of introduction with appropriate examples that will spur them on to conduct their own ergonomic research. It is hoped that the approximately 200 citations presented in this chapter's reference section can assist in such efforts. It is imperative that we add to our ergonomic knowledge base if our future learning environments are to be developed on the basis of "hard science" with justifiable expectations and not left to the whims of trends and design affectations. Figure 36-23 is a visual summary of many of the design details that affect the comfort, attention, and notetaking effectiveness of students in lecturing environments.

In concluding this chapter, I would like to suggest a series of questions and concerns that I feel need to be addressed each time those involved in planning the learning environment get together to assess the ergonomic needs of the facility's occupants in the process of developing the critical document known as the educational specifications. Of course such discussions should not be limited to these questions but also include the many others that relate to the school or training center's mission, demographics, staffing, and so forth. However, since it is usually the ergonomic concerns that seem to get short shrift, and since that is the topic of this chapter, I will focus my coverage on the major ergonomic issues. However, I will also include a couple of related issues that I feel need to be mentioned. These same questions need to be asked at the conclusion of the facility's construction and occupancy in order to help the facility's administration to determine if all of the important considerations have been made or whether physical corrections are already in order. Asking oneself these questions will also alert the teacher or trainer to the need for classroom interventions.

Area. This is the net assignable area allocated to the various spaces in a facility. Will the various space allocations make it possible for a teacher/trainer to set up seating in the patterns they desire, with appropriate viewing distances and viewing angles? Will the space allocations accommodate the easy access and storage of instructional materials and equipment? Is there a need to use a chalk and/or marker board simultaneously with media projection, and if so is the room sufficiently wide enough to permit this side-by-side display arrangement?

HVAC Has there been an accurate estimate made regarding the anticipated heat that will be produced in the areas by people, activities, technology, lighting, etc.? Have the electrical and HVAC systems been appropriately Ltsized" to accommodate such estimated full-load amperes (FLA) and British thermal units per hour (BTUH)? Will the thermal environment provide the appropriate amount of air exchange in the spaces, with an appropriate number of fresh-air changes per hour? Will the resultant air velocities at each student location be sufficient to dissipate heat buildup but not cause drafts? Will the spaces' relative humidity be kept within acceptable limits throughout all months of the year for both occupants and sensitive educational technology? Will there be any "off gassing" problems expected from the building materials used in the facilty's construction?

Acousticalfactors. Will the spaces have the ambient noise spectra (preferred noise criteria curve) appropriate for the programmed activities. Will the room's walls sufficiently attenuate (sound transmission class) sound in one room from interfering with the activities of an adjacent ro om? Will the air-handling units create too much background noise for effective speech communication to occur? Will the spaces have reverberation times appropriate for the programmed activities and the needs of special students? Are there any hard parallel walls that should have acoustical treatment in order to avoid excessive reverberation, echoes, flutter, etc.? Will the ballasts used in the lighting systems be appropriately quiet for the spaces intended activities?

Lighting. Will there be sufficient horizontal illuminance for the proposed visual tasks? Will there be sufficient and uniform vertical illuminance to illuminate the chalk and/or marker board areas appropriately? Will the resultant display surfaces have a luminance at least equal to, and preferably a bit greater than, the adjacent wall areas? Can the ambient illuminance in the projection screen area be effectively and easily controlled during projection so that images are not "washed out"? Have all possible sources of glare been considered and eliminated through either design or product selection? Will the luminaires have color temperatures and color rendition indices appropriate for the spaces intended activities? Has daylighting been employed effectively and its control such that solar-heat gain and glare will not be problematic for occupants, and that it will not compromise media projection when in use? Will the pattern of luminances created by lighting and surface finishes be such that they promote visual efficiency, visual comfort, and aesthetic value?

Reflectances. Will the reflectances chosen for the wall and desk finishes be such that they will produce backgrounds for near and distant visual tasks that will promote orientation to the task and in general contribute to a glare-free environment when illuminated by the lighting systems chosen for the spaces? Are the chalkboards and/or marker boards of a reflectance appropriate to display chalk or liquid markers with sufficient contrast for legibility, but not so great as to create contrast ratios that are visually uncomfortable?

Utility factors. Are there sufficient electrical circuits and outlets to support the technology needs of the spaces? Are there sufficient data/voice lines and connections in the spaces for the programmed activities? Will there need to be electrical filtration or transient "spike" suppressions systems? Is water (hot and cold) or compressed air required in any of the spaces?

Seating. Are the chairs ergonomically appropriate for the programmed activities and the physical sizes of the intended user population? Do the chairs have all of the reouired seats, plus 3 handicap locations (13.4 SF/occupant) plus a 11' X 42'rear-projection room, a 7' X 20'frontprojection room, and a 230 SF enclosure for a chairlift.

* 189 fixed seats, 12 with regular 21 " seat pan widths, and 177 large modules of 22.75-23.50", with side-to-side spacing of 26.5-27.0", true staggered arrangement, on risers spaced 42" apart and with a tablet arm and two arm rests per person. Left-hand tablet arms clustered at desired viewing locations, with a "L" label on the chair back to simplify locating the left-handed seats.

* Ambient noise level equal to PNC 26, with a reverberation time of approximately 1.2". Acoustical gain of voice amplification system 20+ dBA. The physical acoustics of the room make possible two-way communications between presenter and audience without microphones. Fluorescent levels for general activities variable by scene selection up to 70 FC, downlighting on dimmer for AV activities = 0-25 FC. Videoconferencing illuminance levels variable by dimmer up to 139 FC.

* Rear-screen image luminances ranged from 28 FL, as seen from audience center, to 5 FL at most angular viewing locations.

* All vertical viewing angles between 25' to top of display and - 10' to bottom of display. All horizontal viewing angles within acceptable standards.

Planning and designing ergonomically correct learning environments require a concerted effort to make the proposed facility's educational specifications reflect what we have learned from ergonomic research. It is hoped that readers, whether facility planners, architects, media specialists, or teachers, will adopt the principles and guidelines presented in this paper and make every effort, consistent with their role on a school systems' building committee or on a college or university's planning committee, to see that these principles and guidelines are employed in the planning of their own future facilities.

In addition, it is hoped that classroom teachers, college instructors, and high-tech trainers or presenters will, after reading this chapter, have a better understanding of how the physical factors inherent in the design of their spaces affect the comfort, well-being, and task performance of their charges, and aggressively seek ways of employing or modifying elements to achieve their instructional goals in an

adjustment features needed, and, if so, will they be able to be operated easily by an inexperienced occupant? Will the desks be of an appropriate height and provide sufficient surface area for the programmed activities? Will the reading and writing surface have an inclination sufficient to promote the comfortable and effective completion of near visually centered tasks such as taking notes, writing, and reading? Will there be desks or tables available with flat work surfaces for three-dimensional tasks, i.e., assembly work, models, etc.?

Display systemfactors. Has the most appropriate display system (rear screen or front screen) been selected for each of the spaces where display systems are required? Do the screens have light distribution patterns (gain) appropriate for the intended media and the width of the spaces? Is it possible for simultaneous use of marker board and media display where required? Are horizontal and vertical sight lines to all parts of the screen physically comfortable as well as unobstructed by occupants seated in front of each other? Have the display systems been coordinated with the lighting fixtures (luminaires), dimmers and/or switches, and scene selection "controls" to permit appropriate image/nonimage "brightness" ratios?

Audio systeinfactors. Has the most appropriate type(s) of audio system(s) been selected for each of the presentation spaces? Will these systems be capable of producing sound levels to promote orientation and adequate signal-to-noise ratios for effective communications? Is "sound masking" needed in any of the "open" multipurpose spaces?

Safety and security factors. Have all possible egress scenarios been considered and provided for? Have the appropriate fire suppression systems been provided for people and equipment? Are there any electrical or hazardous substance conditions that need to be accommodated? Have medical and first-aid services been considered and provided where a need is anticipated? Have security measures been provided to ensure personal safety and hazard and intrusion avoidance? Are there pockets of invisibility where potential hazards for people are likely to be hidden from view? Is the parking area safe? Are all locks clearly visible so that using one's keys is not problematic at any time of the day or night the facility is in use?

Handicappedlelderly. Have the physical, auditory, and visual needs of the handicapped and elderly learners been accommodated?

Anthropometric factors. Have corridors, door openings, etc., been designed to make passage safe and nonclaustrophobic. Will they accommodate prosthetic devices including wheelchairs? Are all critical controls for environmental and equipment elements within easy reach for all of the intended population? Are all physical clearances into spaces of sufficient height and width to accommodate all of 'e intended population? Have furnishings been selected on the basis of anthropometric appropriateness and not solely on the owners's aesthetic values or organizational image?

Orientation factors. Is the floor plan logic such that people new to a space will have no difficulty getting to where they want to go? Has sufficient attention been given to space differentiation, and to color and graphic usage, t, promote efficient "way finding"? is the logic such tha there is not excessive transition time from entrances ti information sources, i.e., reception desks, the message centel or message monitors?

Proxemics. Have the spaces been designed to provide, sense of personal space where desired and the number a. socieopital and sociofugal spaces needed to compliment th( facility's program? Does the facility convey a sense ol openness and/or territoriality where desired?

Aesthetics and interaction. Will the facilty convey a sense of familiarity, cultural identity, and naturalness? Are there sufficient window views and areas that capitalize on natural light? Will the facility provide sensory variation for its occupants that is stimulating but not so distracting that it will interfere with their task performance?

Housekeeping. Have the problems associated with beverages, food use, and smoking been accommodated, through both facility design and the establishment of rules and regulations?

Control systems. Are there control systems for room lighting, drapery, and HVAC? Are these accessible to the appropriate people? Are the media control systems designed in a logical manner so that their operation is selfevident, i.e., one does not need to read a manual in order to use them? Are all operations labels visible and legible given the lighting conditions under which they are expected to be used? Can a student turn on and operate all elements in his or her workstation without needing to involve someone else? Are impo;unt operating instructions clearly visible and understandable by all of the intended users? Do all controls provide the operator with feedback, i.e, tactile, kinesthetic, visual, auditory, etc., so that the operator knows immediately the consequence of his or her action?