Adams, J.K. (1957). Laboratory studies of behavior without awareness. Psychological Bulletin 54, 383-405.

Abrams, A. & Streit, L. (1986). Effectiveness of interactive video in teaching basic photography. TH.E. Journal 14 (2), 92-96.

Allen, W.H. & Cooney, S.M. (1963). A study of the non-linearity variable in filmic presentation. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California. NDEATitle VII, Project No. 422.

— & — (1964). Non-linearity in filmic presentation. AV Communication Review 12 (2), 164-76.

Allison, J. (1963). Cognitive structure and receptivity to lowintensity stimulation. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psychology 67, 132-38.

Anderson, J.R. (1985a). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Freeman.

— (1985b). Theories of learning, 5th ed- Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

— (1978). Arguments concerning representations for mental imagery. Psychological Review 85, 249-77.

Anderson, R.C., Greeno, J.G., Kline, PT & Neves, D.M. (1981). Acquisition of problem solving skill. In J.R. Anderson, ed. Cognitive shlls and their acquisifton Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Advertising Research Foundation (1958). Application of subliminal perception in advertising. New York: ARE

Atherton, L.L.(1971). A comparison of movie and multi-image presentation techniques on affective and cognitive learning. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University. Dissertation Abstracts International 32 (6-A), 5924. (University Microfilms, No. 71-31,154.)

Attneave, F. (1954). Some informational aspects of visual perception. Psychological Review 61, 183-93.

Ausburn, F.B. (1975). Multiple versus linear imagery in the presentation of a comparative visual location task to visual and haptic college students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma.

Baddeley, A.D. (1966). Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic, and formal similarity. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 18,362-65.

Baggett, P. (1984). Role of temporal overlap of visual and auditory material in forming dual media associations. Journal of Educational Psychology 76, 408-17.

—& Ehrenfecucht, A. (1983). Encoding and retaining information in the visuals and verbals of an educational movie. Educational Communication and Technology 31 (1), 23-32.

Baker, E.J. & Alluisi, E.A. (1962). Information handling aspect of visual and auditory form perception. Journal of Engineering Psychology 1, 159-79.

Bartlett, FC. (1958). Thinking. New York: Basic Books.

Beagles-Roos, J. & Gat, 1. (1983). Specific impact of radio and television on children's story comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology 75, 128-37.

Beck, C.R. (1983). Successive and simultaneous picture and passage formats: visual, tactual, and topical effects. Educational Communications and Technology 31 (3), 145-52.

(1987). Pictorial cueing strategies for encoding and retrieving information. International Journal of Instructional Media 14 (4),332-46.

Berger, M.M. (1973). A preliminary report on the multi-image immediate impact on video self-confrontation. American Journal of Psychiatry 130, 304-06.

Bevan, W. (1964). Subliminal stimulation: a pervasive problem for psychology, Psychological Bulletin 61, 81-99.

Bither, S.W. (1972). Effects of distraction and commitment on the persuasiveness of television advertising. Journal of Marketing Research 9, 1-5.

Blackwell, H.R. (1968). Lighting in the learning module. American Annals of the Deaf 113 (5), 1063-74.

Bollman, C.G. (1970). The effect of large screen multi-image display of evaluative meaning. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University. Dissertation Abstracts International 31 (1 I-A), 5924. (University Microfilms, No. 71-11,789.)

Bourne, C.E., Dominowski, R.L., Loftus, E.F. & Healy, A.F. (1986). Cognitive processes, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bransford, J.D. & Johnson, M.K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11, 717-26.

Bransford, J.D., Sherwood, R., Vye, N.J. & Rieser, J. (1986). Teaching thinking and problem solving: research foundations. American Psychologist 41 (10), 1078-79.

Britton, B.K., Meyer, B.J.R, Simpson, R., Holdredge, T. & Curry, C. (1979). Effects of organization of text on memory: test of two implications of selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and Memory 5,496-506.

Broadbent, D.E. (1956). Successive responses to simultaneous stimuli. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 8, 145-52.

— (1957). Immediate memory and simultaneous stimuli. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 9, 1-11.

— (1958). Perception and communication. New York: Pergamon.

— (1965). Information-processing in the nervous system. Science 150, 457-62.

Brown, J. (1959). Information, redundancy, and decay of the memory trace. In Mechanization of the thought, Vol. 2. National Physical Laboratory, Symposium No. 10. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher 18 (1),32-41.

Bruner, J.S. (1967). Towards a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Goodnow, J.J. & Auston, G.A. (1967). A study of thinking. New York: Wiley.

Burke, K.(1987). AMI research bibliography. AMI Archives and Clearinghouse No. CAbl. & Leps, A.A. (1989). Multi-image research: a thirty-year retrospective. International Journal of Instructional Media 16 (3),181-95.

Burton, J.K. & Bruning, R.H. (1982). Interference effects on the recall of pictures, printed words, spoken words. Contemporary Educational Psychology 7, 61-69. (1982). Dual coding of pictorial stimuli by children. Journal ofMental Imagery 6 (1), 159-68.

Byrne, D. (1959). The effect of a subliminal food stimulus on verbal responses. Journal ofApplied Psychology 43, 249-52.

Calvert, S.L., Huston, A.C., Watkins, B.A. & Wright, J.C. (1982). The relation between selective attention to television forms and children's comprehension of content. Child Development 53, 601-10.

Calvin, A.D. & Dollenmayer, K.S. (1959). Subliminal perception: some negative findings. Journal ofApplied Psychology 43, 187-88.

Carpenter, C.R. (1953). A theoretical orientation for instructional film research. AV Communication Review 1, 38-52,

Carterette, E.C. & Jones, M.H. (1965). Visual and auditory information-processing in children and adults. Science 156, 986-88.

Champion, J.M. & Turner, W.W. (1959). An experimental investigation of subliminal perception. Journal of Applied Psychology 43, 382-84.

Cherry, C.E. (1953). Some experiments on the recognition of speech with one and two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society ofAmerica 25, 975-74.

—(1957). On human communication: a review, a survey, and a criticism, New York: Wiley.

Clark, R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research 53, 445-59.

Clark, S.E. (1969). Retrieval of color information from preperceptual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 82, 263-66.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher 19 (5), 2-10.

Conrad, R. (1964). Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology 55, 75-84.

Conway, J.K. (1967). Multiple-sensory modality communication and the problem of sign types. AV Communication Review 15 (4), 371-83.

—(1968). Information presentation, information-processing, and the sing vehicle. AV Communication Review 16 (4), 403-14.

Cooper, L.A. & Shepard, R.N. (1973). Chronometric studies of the rotation of mental images. In W.G. Chase, ed. Visual information-processing. New York: Academic.

Corballis, M.C. & Raebum, B.J. (1970). Recall strategies in three-channel immediate memory. Canadian Journal of Psychology 24, 109-16.

Coyne, J.W., King, H.E., Zubin, J. & Landis, C. (1943). Accuracy of recognition of subliminal auditory stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology 33, 508-13.

Day, W.F. & Beach, B.R. (1950). A survey of the research literaure comparing the visual and auditory presentation of information. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Contract No. W33-039-ac-21269, E.O. No. 694-37).

DeBloois, M.L. (1982). Videodisclinicrocomputer courseware design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

DeChenne, J.A. (1975). An experimental study to determine if a task involving psychomotor and problem-solving skills can be taught subliminally. Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dissertation Abstracts International 37, 1947a. (University Microfilms

NO. 76-23213.)

DeFleur, M.L. & Petranoff, R.M. (1959). A televised test of subliminal persuasion. Public Opinion Quarterly 23, 168-80.

Didcoct, D.H. (1958). Comparison of the cognitive and affective responses of college students to single-image and multi-image audio-visual presentations. Unpublished doc toral dissertation, Cornell University.

Dixon, N.F. (1971). Subliminal perception: the nature of a controversy. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Drew, D.G. & Grimes, T. (1987). Audio-visual redundancy and TV news recall. Communication Research 14, 452-61.

Dwyer, F.M. (1972). A guide for improving visualized instruction. State College, PA: Learning Services. (1978).

— Strategies for improving visual learning. State College, PA: Learning Services. Egan, D.E. & Schwartz, B.J. (1979). Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory & Cognition 7,149-58.

Eggen, P. D. & Kauchak, D. (1992). Educational psychology: classroom connections. New York: Merrill.

Emmer, E.T. (1981). Effective management in junior high mathematics classrooms. Austin, TX: University of Texas (R&D Report No. 6111).

Evertson, C.M., Anderson, L.M. & Brophy, J.E. (1978). Process-outcome relationships in the Texas junior high school study: compendium. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education (ERIC #ED 166 192).

Eysenck, N.J. (1963). The measurement of motivation. Reprinted from Scientific American. (May). New York: Freeman (Print No. 477).

Feigenbaum, E.A. & Simon, H.A. (1963). Brief notes on the EPAM theory of verbal learning. In C.N. Confer & B.S. Musgrave, eds. Verbal behavior and learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Festinger, L. & Maccoby, N. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psy chology 68, 359-66.

Findahl, 0. (198 1). The effect of visual illustrations upon pecePtion and retention of news programmes. (ERIC Docu ment Reproduction Service No. ED 054 63 1.)

Fleisher, R. (1969). Multiple-image technique for "The Boston Strangler." American Cinematographer, 202-205 et passim.

Fleming, M.L. (1970). Perceptual principles for the design of illstructiolial material. Viewpoints. Bloomington, IN: Indi ana University, Bulletin of the School of Education. 69-200. versity (ERIC # ED 016 285).

Fortune, J.C. (1967). A study of the generality of presenting behavior in teaching. Memphis, TN: Memphis State Uni

Fradkin, B.M. (1974). Effectiveness of multi-image presentations. Journal of Educational Technology Systems 2, 231-326.

— (1976). A review of multiple image presentation research. (Contract No. WIE -C-74-0027.) Washington, DC. National Institute of Education (ERIC No. 130 680).

— & Meyowitz, J. (1975). Design of multi-image instructional presentations. Paper presented at the national convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Dallas, TX.

Gardner, H. (1985). The mind's new science: a history of the cognitive revolution. New York: Basic Books.

Gerard, E.O. (1960). Subliminal stimulation in problem solving. American Journal of Psychology 73, 121-26.

Gersten, R.M., Carine, D.W. & Williams, P.B. (1982). Measuring implementation of a structural educational model in a urban school district: an observational approach. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 4, 67-79.

Gleason, J. (1991). Development of an interactive multimedia presentation for use in a public delivery setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech University.

Goldstein, B. (1975). The perception of multiple images. AV Communication Review 23 (1), 34-68.

Goldstein, M.I. & Barthol, R.P. (1960). Fantasy responses to subliminal stimuli. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 60, 22-26.

— & Davis, D. (1961). The impact of stimuli registering outside of awareness. Journal of Personality 29, 247-57.

Greco, A. & McClung, C. (1979). Interaction between attention directing and cognitive style. Educational Communications and Technology Journal 27, 97-102.

Grimes, T. (1991). Mild auditory-visual dissonance in television news may exceed viewer attentional. capacity. Human Communication Research 18, (2), 268-98.

Gulo, E. & Baron, A. (1965). Classroom learning of meaningful prose by college students as a function of sensory mode of stimulus presentation. Percept" and Motor Skills 21, 183-86.

Hannafin, M.J. (1985). Empirical issues in the study of computer assisted interactive video. ECTJ 33 (4), 235-47.

Hanson, L. (1989). Multichannel learning research applied to principles of television production: a review and synthesis of the literature. Educational Technology 29 (10), 15-19.

Hardiman, B. & Williams, R. (1990). Teaching developmental mathematics: the interactive video approach. TH.E. Journal 17, 63-65.

Hartman, F.R. (1961a). Investigation of recognition leaming under multiple-channel presentation and testing conditions. AV Communication Review 9, 24-43.

— (1961b). Single and multi-channel communication: a review of research and a proposed model. AV Communication Review 9, 235-62.

Hayes, D.S., Kelly, S.B. & Mandel, M. (1986). Media differences in children's story synopses: radio and television contrasted. Journal of Educational Psychology 78, 341-46.

Henneman, R.H. (1952). Vision and audition as sensory channels for communication. Journal of Speech 38, 161-66.

Herman, L.M. (1965). Study of the single channel hypothesis and input regulation within a continuous, simultaneous task situation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 17.37-46.

Hernandez-Peon, R. (1961). Reticular mechanisms of sensory control. In W.A. Rosenblith, ed. Sensory communication, 497-517. New York: Wiley.

Hessler, D.W. (1972). Interaction of 'visual compression' and field-dependence in relation to self-instruction and transfer. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972. Dissertation Abstracts International 33, 6235a. (University of Microfilms No. 73-12735.)

Higgins, K. & Boone, R. (1992). Hypermedia computer study guides: adapting a Canadian history text. Social Education 56 (3),154-59.

Hill, S.D. & Hecker, E.E. (1966). Auditory and visual learning of paired associate tasks by second grade children. Perceptual & Motor Skills 23, 814.

Hoban, C.F. & VanOrmer, E.B. (1950). Instructional film research. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University (SDC 269-7-19).

— (1949). Some aspects of learning from films. Incidental Report No. 2. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State College, Instructional Film Research Program.

Hollingworth, H.L. (1919). Advertising and selling. New York: Appleton.

Hooper, S. & Hannafin, M.J. (1991). Psychological perspectives on emerging instructional technologies: a critical analysis. Educational Psychologist 26 (1), 69-95.

Hsia, H.J. (1968). On channel effectiveness. AV Communication Review 16, 245-67.

- (1969). Intelligence in auditory, visual, and audiovisual information-processing. AV Communication Review 17, 272-82.

- (1971). The information-processing capacity of modality and channel performance. AV Communication Review 19 (1),51-75.

Hubbard, R.D. (1961). Telemation: AV automatically controlled. Audio-visual Instruction 6, 437-39.

Janda, K. (1992). Multimedia in political science: sobering lessons from a teaching experiment. Jourruil ofEducational Multimedia and Hypennedia 1, 341-54.

Jacobson, H. (1950). The informational capacity of the human ear. Science 112, 143-44.

— (1951). The informational capacity of the human eye. Science 113, 292-93.

Johnson, H. & Eriksen, C.W. (1961). Preconscious perception: a re-examination of the Poetzl phenomenon. Joumal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 62, 497-503.

Jonassen, D.,(1979). Implications of multi-image for concept acquisition. Educational Technology Communication Journal 27 (4)t 291-302.

Jones, L.L. & Smith, S.G. (1989). Lights, camera, reactions! The interactive videodisc: a tool for teaching chemistry. TH.E. Joumal 16,78-85.

Kalmeman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kale, S.U., Grosslight, J.H. & McIntyre, D.J. (1955). Exploratory studies in the use of Pictures and sound for teaching foreign language vocabulary. Technical Report SDC 269-7-53. Port Washington, New York: Special Devices Center.

Katz, P.A. & Deutsch, M. (1963). Visual and auditory efficiency and its relationship to reading in children. Final RepoM Project 1009, Washington, DC: Office of Education.

Keff, B. (1973). Processing demands during mental operations. Memory and Cognitions 1, 401-412.

Ketcham, C.H. & Heath, RX (1962). Teaching effectiveness of sound with pictures that do not embody the material being taught. AV Communication Review 10, 89-93.

King, H.E., Landis, C. & Zubin, J. (1944). Visual subliminal perception where a figure is obscured by the influences upon conscious thought. Joumal of Experimental Psychology 34, 60-69.

Klatzky, R.L. (1980). Human memory., structures and processes. New York: Freeman.

Klein, G.S., Spence, D.P., Holt, R.R. & Gourevitch, S. (1958). Cognition without awareness: subliminal influences upon conscious thought. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 57, 255-66.

Kleinsmith, L.J. & Kaplan, S. (1963). Paired-associate learning as a function of arousal and interpolated interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology 65, 190-93.

— & — (1964). Interaction of arousal and recall interval in nonsense syllable paired-associate learning. Joumal of Experimental Psychology 67,124-26.

—& Tarte, R.D. (1963). The relationship of arousal to short- and long-term verbal recall. Canadian Joumal of Psychology 17, 393-97.

Kolers, P.A. (1957). Subliminal stimulation in problem solving. American Joumal of Psychology 70, 437-41.

Kopstein, F.F. & Roshal, S.M. (1954). Leaming foreign vocabuIary from pictures versus words. The American Psychologist 9, 407-08.

Kosslyn, S.M. (1975). Information representation in visual images. Cognitive Psychology 7, 341-70.

Kozma, R.B. (1987). The implications of cognitive psychology for computer-based learning tools. Educational Technology, Nov., 20-25.

— (1991). Learning with media. Review of Educational Research 61 (2), 179-211.

Kreszock, C.M. (198 1). An experimental study to compare the affective and cognitive responses of female and male college students to single-image, multi-image, and time compressed single-image presentations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech University.

Langer, S.D. (1957). Philosophy in a new key: a study of the symbolism of reason, rite, and art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Lazarus, R.S. & McCleary, R.A. (1951). Automatic discrimination without awareness: a study of subception. Psychological Review 58, 113-22..

Levie, W.H. & Lentz, R. (1982). Effects of text illustrations: a review of research. Educational Communications and Technology Journal 30 (4), 195-232.

Levie, W.L. (1987). Research on pictures: a guide to the literature. In D.M. Willows & H.A. Houghton, eds. The psychology of illustration. New York: Springer.

Lorch, E.P., Bellack, D.R. & Augsbach, L.H. (1987). Young children's memory for televised stories: effects of importance. Child Development 58, 453-62.

Lillie, D.L., Hannum, W.H. & Stuck, G.B. (1989). Computers and effective instruction. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Liu, M. (1992). The application of research-based instructional design principles in developing a hypermedia assisted instruction courseware for second language learning. Paper presented at the 34th ADCIS meeting.

Livingstone, R.B. (1962). An adventure shared psychology and neurophysiology. In S. Koch, ed. Psychology. a study of science. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lombard, E.S. (1969). Multi-channel, multi-image teaching of synthesis skills in Ildi-grade U.S. history. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California.

Low, C. (1968). Multi-screen and Expo 67. Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers 77, 185-86.

Lumsdaine, A.A. & Gladstone, A. (1958). Overt practice and audio-visual embellishments. Learning from films (edited by M.A. May & A.A. Lumsdaine). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Magliaro, S. (1988). Expertise in problem identification: a descriptive analysis of the cue selection and hypothesis generation of reading diagnosticians. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Malandin, C. (n.d.). Research on the understanding of filmstrips. Ministere de I'Education Nationale, Ecole Normale Superieur de Saint-Cloud, France (Mimeo) (b).

Mandler, J.M. & Parker, R.E. (1976). Memory for descriptive and spatial information of complex pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human and Learning Memory, 38-48.

Matchett, J.R. & Elliott, S.A. (1991). Multimedia: the potential is startling, but ... Inform 6 (4), 48-50.

May, M.A. & Lumsdaine, A.A., eds. (1958). Learning fiom films. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Mayer, R.E. (1983). Thinking, problem solving, cognition, New York: Freeman.

— (1984). Aids to text comprehension. Educational Psychologist 19, 30-42.

—& Anderson, R.B. (1991). Animations need narrations: an experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology 83 (4), 484-90.

— (1989). Systematic thinking fostered by illustrations in scientific text. Journal ofEducalional Psychology 81 (2), 240-46.

—& Gallini, J.K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology 82 (4),715-26.

McConnell, J.W., Cutler, R.L. & McNeil, E.B. (1958). Subliminal stimulation: an overview. American Psychologist 13, 229-42.

McFee, J.K. (1969). Visual communication. In RX Wman & M.C. Meierhenry, eds. Educational media: theory into practice. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

McGinnus, E. (1949). Emotionality and perceptual defense. Psychological Review 56, 244-5 1.

McNeil, B.J. & Nelson, K.R. (1991). Meta-analysis of interactive video instruction: a 10-year review of achievement effects. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 18 (1), 1-6.

Meringoff, L.K. (1980). Influence of the medium on children's story apprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology 72, 24-49.

Nugent, G.C. (1982). Pictures, audio, and print: Symbolic representation and effect on learning. Educational Communication and Technology 30 (3),163-74.

Millard, W.L. (1964). Visual teaching aids: production and use. The encyclopedia ofphotography. New York: Greystone.

Miller, G.A. (1953). What is information measurement? American Psychologist 17, 748-62.

— (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63, 81-97.

Miller, H.B. & Burton, LK. (1994). Itnages and imagery theory. In D.M. Moore & F.M. Dwyer, eds. Visual literacy. a spectrum of visual learning, 65-85. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

Miller, J.G. (1942). Unconsciousness. New York: Wiley.

Miller, N.E., ed. (1957). Graphic communication and the crisis in education. In collaboration with W.A. Allen et al. AV Communication Review 5, 1-120.

Moore, D.M., Myers, R.J. & Burton, J.K.(1994). What multimedia might do and ... what we know about what it does. In A- Ward, ed. Multimedia and learning: a school ~v leaders guide. Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association.

Moore, LE & Moore, D.M. (1984). Subliminal perception and cognitive style in a concept learning task taught via television. British Journal of Educational Technology 3 (15), 22-31.

— (1982). An exploratory study of subliminal perception and field dependence in a concept learning task taught by television. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Moray, N. (1959). Attention in dichotic listening: affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 11, 59-60.

Mowbray, G.H. (1952). Simultaneous vision and audition: the detection of elements from over-learned sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology 44, 292-300.

Mudd, S.A. & McCormick, E.J. (1960). The use of auditory cues in a visual search task. Journal ofApplied Psychology 44,184-88.

Murch, G.M. (1965). A set of conditions for a consistent recovery of subliminal stimulus. Journal of Applied Psychology 49, 257-60.

Myers, R. (1993). Problem-based learning: a case study in integrating teachers, students, methods, and hypermedia databases. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University~ Blacksburg, VA.

Neely, J.H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 106, 226-54.

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Nelson, T.O., Metzler, J. & Reed, D.A. (1974). Role of details in the long-term recognition of pictures and verbal descriptions. Journal of Experimental Psychology 102, 184-86.

Norberg, K. (1966). Visual perception theory and instructional communication. AV Communication Review 14, 301-16.

Norman, D.A_ (1969). Memory and attention. New York: Wiley.

Nuthall, G. & Alton-Lee, A- (1990). Research on teaching and learning: thirty years of change. The Elementary School Journal 90 (5), 547-70.

Osterhouse, R.A. & Brock, T.C. (1970). Distraction increases yielding to propaganda by inhibiting counterarguing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 15, 344-58.

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

— (1986). Mental representations: a dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.

Papert, S. (1977). A learning environment of children. In R.J. Seidel & M. Rubin, eds. Computers and communications: implications for education, 271-78. New York: Academic.

Park, 1. & Hannifin, M.J. (1993). Empirically-based guidelines for the design of interactive multimedia. Educational Technology Research and Development 41 (3), 63-85.

Pellegrino, J.W., Siegel, A.W. & Dhawan, M. (1974). Shortterm retention of pictures and words: evidence for dual coding systems. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and Memory 1, 95-102.

— & —(1976a). Short-term retention of pictures and words as a function of type of distraction and length of delay interval. Memory & Cognition 4, 11-15.

— & —(1976b). Differential distraction effects in shortterm and long-term retention of pictures and words. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and Memory 2, 541-47.

Perrin, D.G. (1969). A theory of multiple-image communication. AV Communication Review 17 (4), 368-82.

Pezdek, K. & Stevens, E. (1984). Children's memory for auditory and visual information on television. Developmental Psychology 210, 212-18.

Posner, M.I. & Snyder, C.R.R. (1975). Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In. P.M.A. Rabbitt & S. Dornic, eds. Attention andperformance, Vol. 5. New York: Academic.

— (1964). Information reduction in the analysis of sequential tasks. Psychology Review 71, 491-504.

Pressley, M. & Miller, G. (1987). Effects of illustrations on children's listening comprehension and oral prose memory. In D.M. Willows & H.A. Houghton, eds. The psychology of illustration. New York: Springer.

Ragan, T., Boyce, M., Redwine, D., Savenye, W.C. & McMichael J. (1993). Is multimedia worth it?~ a review of the effectiveness of individualized multimedia instruction. A paper presented at the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Convention, New Orleans, LA.

Reese, S.D. (1983). Improving audience learningftom television news through between-channel redwidancy. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Ed 229 777.)

Reed, S.K. (1985). Effect of computer graphics on improving estimates to algebra word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology 77 (3), 285-98.

Reynolds, R.E. & Baker, D.R. (1987). The utility of graphical representations in text: some theoretical and empirical issues. Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching 24 (2), 161-73.

Rigney, JX & Lutz, K.A. (1976). Effect of graphic analogies of concepts in chemistry on learning and attitude. Journal of Educational Psychology 68, 305-11.

Rolandelli, D.R. (1989). Children and television: the visual superiority effect reconsidered. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 33 (1), 69-8 1.

Roshka, A.U. (1960). Conditions facilitating abstraction and generalization. Voprosy Psikhologii, 1958, 4 (6) 89-96. (Reported by I.D. London, PsychologicalAbstracts 34, 85.)

Sackeim, H.A., Packer, I.K. & Gur, R.C. (1977). Hemisphericity, cognitive set, and susceptibility to subliminal perception. Journal ofAbnormal Psychology 86, 624-30.

Samuels, S.J. (1970). Effects of pictures on learning to read, comprehension and attitudes. Review of Educational Research 40 (3), 397-407.

Schiff, W. (1961). The effect of subliminal stimuli on guessing accuracy. American Journal ofPsychology 74, 54-60.

Severin, W.J. (1967a). Cue summation in multiple-channel communication. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin.

— (1967b). Another look at cue summation. AV Communication Review 15 (4), 233-45.

— (1967c). The effectiveness of relevant pictures in multiplechannel communication. AV Communication Review 15 (4), 386-401.

Shannon, C.E. & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Sharp, H.C. (1959). Effect of subliminal cues on test results. Journal ofApplied Psychology 43, 369-7 1.

Sheehan, J. (1992). Multimedia down under. Multimedia and Videodisc Monitor 10 (6), 20.

Shepard, R.N. (1967). Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6, 156-63.

Shevrin, H. & Luborsky, L. (1958). The measurement of preconscious perception in dreams and images: an investigation of the Poetzl phenomenon. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 56, 285-94.

Shiffrin, R.M. & Geisler, W.S. (1973). Visual recognition in a theory of information-processing. In R.L. Solso, ed. Contemporary issues in cognitive psychology. the Loyola symposium Washington, DC: Winston.

Skinner, W.S. (1969). The effect of subliminal and supraliniinal words presented via video-taped motion pictures on vocabulary development of ninth-grade students. Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ: University Microfilms, No. 69-20802.

Slee, E.J. (1989). A review of the research on interactive video. A paper presented at the Educational Communications and Technology Annual meeting, Dallas, TX

Smith, E.E. (1987). Interactive video: an examination of use and effectiveness. Journal of Instructional Development 10 (2),2-10.

Smith, R.L. (1966). Monotony and motivation: a theory of vigilance. Santa Monica, CA: Dunlap.

Smith, G.J.W., Spence, D.P. & Klein, G.S. (1959). Subliminal effects of verbal stimuli. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59, 167-76.

Smith, K.U. & Smith, M.F. (1966). Cybernetic principles of learning and educational design. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Smith, P.L., Hsu, S, Azzarello, J. & McMichael, J. (1993). Group-based multimedia: research conclusions and future question. A paper presented at the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Convention, New Orleans, LA.

Smith, S.M., Glenbert, A. & Bjork, R.A. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. Memory and Cognition 6, 342-53.

Spaulding, S. (1956). Communication potential of pictorial illustration. AV Communication Review 4, 31-46.

Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs 74, 1-29.

Strommen, E.F & Revelle, G.L. (1990). Research in interactive technologies at the Children's Television Workshop. Educational Technology Research and Development 38 (4), 65-80.

Suppes, P. (1980). The teacher and computer-assisted instruction. In R.P. Taylor, ed. The computer in the school: tutor, tool, tutee, 231-35. New York: Teachers College Press.

Thris, L.J. (1970). Subliminal perception: an experimental study to determine whether a. science concept can be taught subliminally to fourth grade pupils. Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, Boston, MA: University Microfilms, No. 70-22527.

Thompson, A.D., Simonson, M.R. & Hargrave, C.P. (1992). Educational technology: a review of the research. Association for Educational communications and Technology.

Travers, R.M.W. (1964a). The transmission of information to human receivers. AV Communication Review 12, 373-85.

— ed. (1964b). Research and theory related to audiovisual information transmission. Salt Lake City, UT: Bureau of Educational Research, University of Utah.

— et al. (1966). Studies related to the design of audiovisual teaching materials. Final Report Contract No. 3-20-003, U.S. Department of Education.

— (1967). Research and theory related to audiovisual information transmission. Rev. ed. Contract No. 3-20-003, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.

— (1968). Theory ofperception and the design of audiovisual materials. Paper presented at the faculty on educational media, Apr. 22, 1968, Bucknell University.

Treisman, A.M. (1960). Contextual cues in selective listening. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 12, 242-48.

United States Army (1959). Training by television and television prompting equipment. New York: Redstone Arsenal, Ordnance Guided Missile School.

VanderMeer, AX (1951). Relative effectiveness of color and black and white in instructional films. Port Washington, NY. Office of Naval Research, Human Engineering Division, Special Devices Center. Technical Report No. SDC269-7-28.

VanMondfrans, A.P. (1963). An investigation of the interaction between the level of meaningfulness and redundancy in the content of the stimulus material, and the mode of presentation of the stimulus material. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Utah.

—& Travers, R.M.W. (1964). Learning of redundant materials presented through two sensory modalities. Perceptual and Motor Skills 19, 743-51

Warshaw, P.R. (1978). Application of selective attention theory to television advertising displays. Journal of Applied Psychology 63 (3), 366-72.

Webb, N.M. (1982). Group composition, group interaction and achievement in cooperative small groups. Journal of Educational Psychology 74, 475-84.

Westwater, LN. (1973). A wide-screen multi-image presentation used as a multidimensional resource for experimental education: a study of teacher-user perceptions. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio state University. Dissertation Abstracts International 33 (8-a), 3976 (University Microfilms No. 73-02,159).

Whitley, J.B. (1917). The effects of perceptual VAX and presentation mode in a visual location task. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. & Moore, D.M. (1979). The effects of perceptual type and presentation mode in a visual location task. Educational Communication and Technology Journal 27 (4), 281-90.

Wilcot, R.C. (1953). A search for subthreshold conditioning at four different auditory frequencies. Journal of Experimental Psychology 46, 271-77.

Williams, D. & Ogilvie, J. (1957). Mass media, learning, and retention. Canadian Journal of Psychology 11, 157-63.

Winn, B. (1987). Charts, graphs, and diagrams in educational materials. In D.M. Arillows & H.A. Houghton, eds. 7he psychology of illustration. New York: Springer.

Witkin, H.A., Moore, C.A., Goodenough, D.R. & Cox, P.W. (1977). Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research 47, 1-64.

Welford, A.T. (1968). Fwulamentals ofskills. London: Methuen.

Yang, C.S. (1993). Theoretical foundations of hypermedia. Unpublished paper. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.

Zuckerman, M. (1960). The effects of subliminal and supraliminal suggestion on verbal productivity. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psychology 60, 404-11.