REFERENCES

Alessi, S.M.-(1988). Fidelity in the design of instructional simulations. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 15 (2), 40-7. Allen, B.S., Lipson, Ll. & Fisher, K.M. (1989). EPOSODE: enhanced procedural orchestration through student observation and detection of errors. Machine-Mediated Learning 3, 147-67.

Anand, P.G. & Ross, S.M. (1987). Using computer-assisted instruction to personalize arithmetic materials for elementary school children. Journal ofEducational Psychology 79,72-8. Aspillaga, M. (1991). Screen design: location of information and its affect on learning. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 18(3),89-92.

Atkins, M. (1993). Theories of learning and multimedia applications: an overview. Research Papers in Education 8 (2),251-71.

Atkins, M. & Blissett, G. (1992). Interactive video and cognitive problem-solving skills. Educational Technology 32 (1),44-50.

Baker-Albaugh, P. (1993). Definitions of interactive learning: what we see is not what we get. Journal of Instruction Delivery Systems 7 (3), 36-9.

Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Kulik, J.A. & Kulik, C-L. (1985). Effectiveness of computer-based education in secondary schools. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 12 (3), 59-68.

Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Kulik, C-L., Kulik, J.A. & Morgan, M. (1991). The instructional effect of feedback in test-like events. Review of Educational Research 61, 213-38.

Becker, H.J. (1985). Men and women as computer-using teachers. Sex Roles 13, 137-48.

Benshoof, L.A. & Hooper, S. (1993). The effects of single- and multiple-window presentation on achievement during computer-based instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 20, 113-7.

Billingsly, PA. (1988). Taking panes: issues in the design of windowing systems. In M. Helender, ed. Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction, 413-36. North-Holland: Elsevier.

Bliss, J. (1994). From mental models to modelling. In H. Mellar, J. Bliss, R. Boohan, J. Ogbom & C. Tompsett, eds. Learning with artificial worlds. computer based modelling in the curriculum, 27-32. London: Falmer.

Bliss, J. & Ogborn, J. (1989). Tools for exploratory learning. Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning 5, 37-50.

Bly, S.A. & Rosenberg, J.K. (1986). A comparison of tiled and overlapping windows. Proceedings of the Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference, 101-06. New York: Association for Computing Machinery.

Bork, A. (1985). Children, computers, and the future of education. Irvine, CA: Educational Technology Center, University of California, Irvine.

- (1986). Let's test the power of interactive technology. Educational Leadership 43 (6), 36-37.

Boyd, G. & Mitchell, P, (1992). How can intelligent CAL better adapt to learners? Computers and Education 18, 23-28.

Brasell, H. (1987). The effect of real-time laboratory graphing on learning graphic representations of distance and velocity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 24, 385-95.

Breuer, K. & Kummer, R. (1990). Cognitive effects of process learning with computer-based instruction. Computers in Human Behavior 6, 69-8 1.

Brown, J.S.' Collins, A. & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and ~e culture of learning. Educational Researcher 18 (1),32-42.

Bruner, J.S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review 31 (1), 21-32.

- (1985). Models of the learner. Educational Researcher 14 (6),5-8.

- (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Burns, R (198 1). A quantitative synthesis of research findings relative to the pedagogical effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in elementary and secondary schools. Dissertation Abstracts International 42, 2946A.

Chiou, G. (1992). Situated learning, metaphors, and computer-based learning environments. Educational Technology 32 (8),7-11.

Choi, J. & Hannafin, M.J. (1995). Situated cognition and learning environments: roles, structures, and implications for design. Educational Technology Research and Development 43 (2),.53-69.

Chung, J. & Reigeluth, C. (1992). Instructional prescriptions for learner control. Educational Technology 32 (10), 14-20.

Clancy, W.J. (1986). From GUIDON to NEOMYCIN and HERACLES in twenty short lessons: ONR final report, 1979-1985. AI Magazine 7 (3), 40-60.

Clark, R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research 53 (4), 445-59.

- (1994). Assessment of distance learning technology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

- (1985). Evidence for confounding in educational computing research. Journal of Educational Computing Research 1 (2),137-48.

- & Voogel, A. (1985). Transfer of training principles for instructional design. Educational Communications and Technology Journal 33, 113-23.

Clements, D. (1985). Research on LOGO in education: is the turtle slow but steady, or not even in the race? Computers in the Schools 2 (2/3), 55-72.

& Gullo, D.F. (1984). Effects of computer programming on young children's cognition. Journal of Educational Psychology 76, 1051-58.

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1991). Technology and the design of generative learning environments. Educational Technology 31 (5), 34-40.

- (1992a). The Jasper experiment: an exploration of issues in le4ming and instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development 40 (1), 65-80.

- (1992b), An anchored instruction approach to cognitive skills acquisition and intelligent tutoring. In J.W.R. & V. Shute, eds. Cognitive approaches to automated instruction, 135-70. Hillsdale, NJ: Album.

- (1993). Anchored instruction and situated cognition revisited. Educational Technology 52-70.

(1994). From visual word problems to learning communities: changing conceptions of cognitive research. In K. McGilly, ed. Classroom lessons: integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford.

Coleman, D.C., Koballa, T.R. & Crawley, F.E. (1992). T1_TG interactive videodisc physical science program: interest results of the 1988-1989 field test. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 1 (2), 223-34.

Collins, A. (1993). Design issues for learning environments. New York: Center for Technology in Education (ERIC Document ED 357 733).

(1994). Goal-based scenarios and the problem of situated learning: a commentary on Andersen Consulting's design of goal-based scenarios. Educational Technology 34 (9), 36-2.

Dalton, D. & Hannafin, M. (1987). Effects of knowledge versus context-based design strategies on information and application learning from interactive video. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 14, 138-4 1.

Delclos, V & Harrington, C. (1991). Effects of strategy monitoring and proactive instruction on children's problem-solving performance. Journal ofEducational Psychology 83, 35-42.

Deny, S. & Lojoie, S. (1993). A middle camp for (un)intelligent computing: an introduction. In S. Lajoie & S. Deny, eds. Computers as cognitive tools. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

diSessa, A. (1982). Unlearning Aristotelian physics: a study of knowledge-based learning. Cognitive Science 6 (1), 37-75.

diSessa, A.A. (1988). Knowledge in pieces. In G. Forman & P. Pufall, eds. Constructivism in the computer age, 49-70. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Duffy, TM. & Jonassen, D.H., eds. (1992). Constructivism and the technology of instruction: a conversation. Hillsdale,

NJ: Erlbaum.

Dunston, P.J. (1992). A critique of graphic organizer research. Reading Research and Instruction 31 (2), 57-65.

Dwyer, F. & Lamberski, R. (1982-83). A review of the research on the effects of the use of color in the teaching

learning process. International Journal of Instructional Media 10, 303-28.

Edwards, D. & Hardman, L. (1989). "Lost in hyperspace": cognitive mapping and navigation in a hypertext environ

ment, 105-25. In R. McAleese, ed. Hypertext. theory into practice. London: BSP.

Edwards, J., Norton, S., Taylor, S., Weiss, M. & Dusseldorp, R. (1975). How effective is CAI? A review of the research. Educational Leadership 33, 147-53.

Eylon, B. & Linn, M. (1988). Learning and instruction: an examination of four research perspectives in science education. Review of Educational Research 58 (3), 251-301.

Floyd, S. (1992). Thinking interactively. In S. Floyd & B. Floyd, eds. Handbook of interactive video. White Plains, NY

Knowledge Industries.

Forman, G. & Pufall, R, eds. (1988). Constructivism in the computer age. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Fosnot, C.T. (1989). Enquiring teachers, enquiring learners: a constructivist approach for teaching. New York: Teacher's College Press.

Fowler, R.C. (1994, Apr.). Piagetian versus Vygotskian perspectives on development and education. Paper presented

at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Freedman, K. (1989). Microcomputers and the dynamics of image making and social life in three art classrooms. Journal of Research on Computing in Education 21, 290-98.

Gall, J. & Hannafin, M.J. (1994). A framework for the study of hypertext. Instructional Science 22, 207-32.

Gavora, M. & Hannafin, M.J. (1995). Perspectives in the design of human-computer interactions: issues and implications. Instructional Science 2Z 445-77.

Gayeski, D.M. (1991). Rapid prototyping: a new model for developing multimedia. Multimedia Review, Fall, 18-23.

Grabinger, R.S. (1993). Computer screen designs: viewer judgments. Educational Technology Research and Development 41 (2),35-73.

Hannafin, M.J. (1984). Guidelines for using locus of instructional control in the design of computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Instructional Development 7 (3), 6-10.

- (1992). Emerging technologies, ISD, and learning environments: critical perspectives. Educational Technology

Research and Development 40 (1), 49-63.

- Hall, C., Land, S. & Hill, J. (1994). Learning in open-ended environments: assumptions, methods, and implications.

Educational Technology 34 (8), 48-55.

Hannafin, K.M. & Dalton, D.W. (1993). Feedback and emerging instructional technologies. In J. Dempsey & G.

Sales, eds. Feedback and interactive instruction, 263-86. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

Harel, 1. (1990). Children as software designers: a constructionist approach for learning mathematics. Journal of Mathematical Behavior 9 (1), 3-93.

- (1991). Children designers: interdisciplinary constructions for learning and knowing mathematics in a computer-rich school. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

- & Papert, S. (199 1). Software design as a learning environment. In 1. Harel & S. Papert, eds. Constructionism, 41-84. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Harless, W. (1986). An interactive videodisk drama: the case of Frank Hall. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 13,113-16.

Hartley, S. (1978). Meta-analysis of the effects of individually paced instruction in mathematics. Dissertation Abstracts International 38 (7-A), 4003.

Hawk, P., McLeod, N.P. & Jonassen, D.H. (1985). Graphic organizers in texts. In D.H. Jonassen, ed. The technology of text: principles for structuring, designing, and displaying text, Vol. 2, 158-85. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

Hawkins, J., Sheingold, K., Gearhart, M. & Berger, C. (1982). Microcomputers in schools: impact on the social life of elementary classrooms. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 3, 361-73.

Henson, K.L. & Knezek, G.A. (1991). The use of prototyping for educational software development. Journal of Research on Computing in Education 24 (2), 230-39.

Ho, C., Savenye, W. & Haas, N. (1986). The effects of orienting objectives and review on learning from interactive video. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 13, 126-29.

Hooper, S. (1992a). Cooperative learning and computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 40 (3), 21-38.

-(1992b). The effects of peer interaction on learning during computer-based mathematics instruction. Journal of Educational Research 85, 180-89.

- & Hannafin, M. (1991). Psychological perspectives on the design of emerging instructional technologies: a critical analysis. Educational Psychologist 26, 69-95.

- & Rieber,. L.P. (1995). Teaching with technology. In A. Ornstein, ed. Theory and practice of teaching, 154-10. New York: Allyn & Bacon.

Horwitz, R & Barowy, B. (1994). Designing and using open-ended software to promote conceptual change. Journal of Science Education and Technology 3 (3), 161-85.

- & Feurzeig, W. (1994). Computer-aided inquiry in mathematics Education. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching 13 (3), 265-301.

Hooper, S., Temiyakam, C. & Williams, M.D. (1993). The effects of cooperative learning and learner control on high- and average-ability students. Educational Technology Research and Development 41 (2), 5-18.

Jakobsd6ttir, S., Krey, C.L. & Sales, G.S. (1994). Computer graphics: preferences by gender in grades 2, 4 and 6. Journal of Educational Research 88, 9 1-100.

Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1989)* Cooperation and competition: theory and research. Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, R.T., Johnson, D.W. & Stanne, M.B. (1985). Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology 77, 668-77.

Johnson, D.W. & Stanne, M.B. (1986). Comparison of computer-assisted cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. American Educational Research Journal 23,382-92.

Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: mind tools for critical thinking. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall.

- (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development 39 (3), 5-14.

- (1988). Integrating learning strategies into courseware to facilitate deeper processing. In D.H. Jonassen, ed. Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware, 151-81. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaurn.

- (1989). Hyperten1hypermedia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

Jones, M.K., Li, Z. & Merrill, M.D. (1992). Rapid prototyping in automated instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development 40 (4), 95-100.

Kafai, Y. (1994). Minds in play. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaurn.

Keller, J. & Suzuki, K. (1988). Using the ARCS motivation model in courseware design. In D. Jonassen, ed. Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware, 401-34. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kember, D. & Murphy, D. (1990). Alternative new directions for instructional design. Educational Technology 30 (8), 42-47.

Kenny, R. (1993). The effectiveness of instructional orienting activities in computer-based instruction. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, New Orleans, LA.

King, A. (1991). Effects of training in strategic questioning on children's problem-solving performance. Journal of Educational Psychology 83, 307-17.

Kinzie, M.B. (1990). Requirements and benefits of effective interactive instruction: learner control, self-regulation, and continuing motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development 38 (1), 5-2 1.

- & Berdel, R.L. (1990). Design and use of hypermedia systems. Educational Technology Research and Development 38 (3),61-68.

- & Sullivan, H.J. (1989). Continuing motivation, learner control, and CAI. Educational Technology Research and Development 37 (2), 5-14.

Koen, BX (1985). Definition of the engineering method. Washington, DC. American Society for Engineering Education.

Kohn, A. (1993). Choices for children: why and how to let students decide. Phi Delta Kappan, Sep., 9-20.

Kozma, R.B. (1987). The implications of cognitive psychology for computer-based learning tools. Educational Technology, Nov., 20-25.

- (1991 a). The impact of computer-based tools and embedded prompts on writing process and products of novice and advanced college writers. Cognition and Instruction 8 (1),1-27.

- (1991b). Learning with media. Review of Educational

Research 61, 179-211.

Kralm, C. & Blanchaer, M. (1986). Using an advance organizer to improve knowledge application by medical students in computer-based clinical simulations. Journal of Computer Based Instruction 13, 71-4.

Kulhavy, R.W. & Stock, W.A. (1989). Control of feedback in computer-assisted instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 39 (4), 27-32.

Kulik, J.A. & Kulik, C-L. (1987). Review of recent research literature on computer-based instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology 1Z 222-30.

Kulik, C-L. & Kulik, J.A. (1991). Effectiveness of computer-based instruction: an updated analysis. Computers and Human Behavior 7, 75-94.

Kulik, C-L. & Kulik, J.A. (1986). Effectiveness of computer-based education in colleges. AEDS Journal, 81-108.

- & Kulik, J.A. & Schwalb, B. J. (1986). Effectiveness of computer-based adult education: a meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research 2 (2), 235-52.

Kulik, J.A., Kulik, C-L. & Bangert-Drowns, R. (1985a). The importance of outcome studies: a reply to Clark. Journal of Educational Computing Research 1, 381-88.

Kulik, C-L. & Bangert-Drowns, R. (1985b). Effectiveness of computer-based education on elementary pupils. Computers in Human Behavior 1, 59-74.

- & Cohen, R (1980). Effectiveness of computer-based college teaching: a meta-analysis of findings. Review of Educational Research 50, 525-44.

Kynigos, C. (1993). Children's inductive thinking during intrinsic and Euclidean geometrical activities in a computer programming environment. Educational Studies in Mathematics 24 (2), 177-97.

Lambrecht, J.J. (1993). Applications software as cognitive enhancers. Journal of Research on Computing in Education 25 (4),506-20.

Lee, Y.B. & Lehman, J.D. (1993). Instructional cueing in hypermedia: a study with active and passive learners. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 2 (1), 25-37.

Lehrer, R. & Littlefield, J. (1993). Relationships among cognitive components in Logo learning and transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology 85 (2), 317-30.

Lepper, M.R. (1985). Microcomputers in education: motivational and social issues. American Psychologist 40, 1-18. & Gurtner, J. (1989). Children and computers: approaching the twenty-first century. American Psychologist 44, 170-78.

Leron, U. (1985). Logo today: vision and reality. Computing Teacher, Feb., 26-32.

Levin, H. & Meister, G. (1986). Is CAI cost-effective? Phi Delta Kappan 67, 745-49.

Lewis, E., Stem, J. & Linn, M. (1993). The effects of computer simulations on introductory thermodynamics understanding. Educational Technology 33 (1), 45-58.

Litchfield, B. (1993). Feedback and certitude in interactive videodisc programs. In J. Dempsey & G. Sales, eds. Interactive instruction and feedback, 229-61. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.

Lopez, C.L. & Sullivan, H.J. (1991). Effects of personalized math instruction for Hispanic students. Contemporary Educational Psychology 16, 95-100.

Malone, T.W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science 4, M-69.

& Lepper, M.R. (1987). Making learning fun: a taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R.E. Snow & M.J. Farr, eds. Aptitude, learning, and instruction: cognitive and affective process analysis, Vol. 3, 223-53. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Marsh, E.J. & Kumar, D.D. (1992). Hypermedia: a conceptual framework for science education and review of recent findings. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 1 (1),25-37.

Martin, L.M.W. (1987). Teachers' adoption of multimedia technologies for science and mathematics instruction. In R.D. Pea & K. Sheingold, eds. Mirrors of minds: patterns of experience in educational computing, 35-56. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Mayer, R.E. (1993). Problem-solving principles. In M. Fleming & W.H. Levie, eds. Instructional message design: principles from the behavioral and cognitive sciences, 2d ed., 253-82. Hillsdale, NJ: Educational Technology.

Mayer, R.E. & Anderson, R. (1992). The instructive animation: helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 84, 444-52.

McNiff, K. (1982). Sex differences in children's art. Journal of Education 164, 271-89.

Mevarech, Z.R., Silber, 0. & Fine, D. (1991). Learning with computers in small groups: cognitive and affective outcomes. Journal of Educational Computing Research 7,233-43.

Miller, D.C. & Kulhavy, R.W. (1991 " ). Personalizing sentences

and text. Contemporary Educational Psychology 16, 287-92.

Mokros, J. & Tinker, R. (1987). The impact of microcomputer-based labs on children's ability to interpret graphs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 24 (4), 369-83.

Nelson, W. & Palumbo, D. (1992). Learning, instruction, and hypermedia. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 1, 287-99.

Niemeier, R., Blackwell, M. & Walberg, H. (1986). CAI can

I be doubly effective. Phi Delta Kappan 67, 750-1.

Niemiec, R. (1989). Comparing the cost-effectiveness of tutoring and computer-based instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research 5, 395-407.

Paivio, A. (1979). Imagery and verbal processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Papert, S. (1981). Computer-based microworlds as incubators for powerful ideas. In R. Taylor, ed. The computer in the school: tutor, tool, tutee, 203-10. New York: Teacher's College Press.

- (1987). Computer criticism vs. technocentric thinking.

Educational Researcher 16 (1), 22-30.

- (1993). The children's machine: rethinking school in the age of the computer New York: Basic Books.

Park, I. & Hannafin, M.J. (1993). Empirically-based guidelines for the design of interactive multimedia. Educational Technology Research and Development 41 (3), 63-85.

Park, 0. & Gittleman, S. (1992). Selective use of animation and feedback in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 40 (4), 27-38.

Pea, R.D. (1987). The aims of software criticism: reply to Professor Papert. Educational Researcher 16 (5), 4-8.

- (1992). Augmenting the discourse of learning with computer-based learning environments. In M.L.E. DeCorte & L. Verschaffel, eds. Computer-based learning environments and problem solving, 313-44. New York: Springer.

- & Kurland, D.M. (1984). Logo programming and the development of planning skills (Report No. 16). New York: Bank Street College.

- & Kurland, D.M. (1987). Cognitive technologies for writing. Review of Research in Education 14, 227-326.

Perkins, D.N. (1992). Technology meets constructivism: do they make a marriage? Educational Technology 31 (5), 18-23.

- (1985). The fingertip effect: how information-processing technology shapes thinking. Educational Researcher 14 (7),11-17.

- & Salomon, G. (1989). Are cognitive skills context bound? Educational Researcher 18 (1), 16-25.

- & Unger, C. (1994). A new look at representations for mathematics and science learning. Instructional Science 22 (1),1-37.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Basic Books.

Pollock, J. & Sullivan, H. (1990). Practice mode and learner control in computer-based instruction. Contemporary Educational Psychology 15, 251-60.

Prawat, R.S. (1991). The value of ideas: the immersion approach to the development of thinking. Educational Researcher 20 (2), 3-10.

& Floden, R.E. (1994). Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of learning. Educational Psychologist 29 (1),37-48.

Pridemore, D. & Klein, J. (1991). Control of feedback in computer-assisted instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 39 (4), 27-32.

Raghavan, K. & Glaser, R. (1995). Model-based analysis and reasoning in science: the MARS curriculum. Science Education 79 (1), 37-61.

Reader, W. & Hammond, N. (1994). Computer-based tools to support learning from hypertext: concept mapping tools and beyond. Computers and Education 22 (1), 99-106.

Reeves, T.C. (1993). Pseudoscience in computer-based instruction: the case of learner control research. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 30 (2), 39-46.

Repman, J. (1993). Collaborative, computer-based learning: cognitive and affective outcomes. Journal of Educational Computing Research 9, 149-63.

Repman, J., Rooze, G. & Weller, H. (1991). Interaction of learner cognitive style with components of hypermedia-based instruction. HyperNEXUS. Journal of Hypermedia and Multimedia Studies 2 (1), 30-33.

Resnick, M. (1990). MultiLogo: a study of children and concurrent programming. Interactive Learning Environments 1 (3),153-70.

- (1991). Children and artificial life. In 1. Harel & S. Papert, eds. Constructionism, 379-90. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

- (1991). Overcoming the centralized mindset: towards an understanding of emergent phenomena. In 1. Harel & S. Papert, eds. Constructionism' 204-14. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Rieber, L.P. (1990). Animation in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 38 (1),77-86.

- (199 1). Animation, incidental learning, and continuing motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology 83, 318-28.

- (1992). Computer-based microworlds: a bridge between constructivism and direct instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development 40 (1), 93-106.

- (1994). Computers, graphics, and learning. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.

Roschelle, J. (199 1, Apr.). Microanalysis of qualitative physics: opening the black box. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL (ERIC Document ED338 490).

& Greeno, J.G. (1987). Mental models in expert physics reasoning. Washington, DC: Office of Naval Research (ERIC Document 285 736).

Ross, S.M. & Anand, P.G. (1987). A computer-based strategy for personalizing verbal problems in teaching mathematics. Educational Communications and Technology Journal 35,151-62.

& Morrison, G.R. (1988). Adapting instruction to learner performance and background variables. In D. Jonassen, ed. Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware, 227-45. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Salomon, G. (1993). On the nature of pedagogic computer tools: the case of the writing partner. In S. Lajoie & S. Derry, eds. Computers as cognitive tools. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Globerson, T. & Guterman, E. (1989). The computer as zone of proximal development: internalizing reading-related metacognitions from a reading partner. Journal of Educational Psychology 81 (4), 620-27.

- & Perkins, D.N. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: rethinking mechanisms of a neglected phenomenon. Educational Psychologist 24 (2), 113-42.

Perkins, D.N. & Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in cognition: extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies. Educational Researcher 20 (3), 2-9.

Santiago, R. & Okey, J. (1992). The effects of advisement and locus of control on achievement in learner-controlled instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 19, 47-53.

Scardamalia, M. Bereiter, C., McLean, R.S., Swallow, J. & Woodruff, E. (1989). Computer-supported intentional learning environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research 5 (1), 51-68.

Schwartz, G., Yerushalmy, M. & Wilson, B., eds. (1993). The Geometric Supposer. what is it a case of? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Schwier, R. (1992). A taxonomy of interaction for instructional multimedia. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association for Media and Technology in Education in Canada.

Seymour, S.L., Sullivan, H.J., Story, N.O. & Mosley, M.L. (1987). Microcomputers and continuing motivation. Educational Communications and Technology Journal 35 (1),18-23.

Soloway, E., Lockhead, J. & Clement, J. (1982). * Does computer programming enhance problem-solving ability? Some positive evidence on algebra word problems. In R. Seidel, R. Anderson & B. Hunter, eds. Computer literacy, 171-85.New York: Academic.

Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P., Jacobson, M. & Coulson, R. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology 31 (5), 24-33.

- & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R.J. Spiro, eds. Cognition, education, and multimedia: exploring ideas in high technology, 163-205. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Steed, M. (1992). Stella: a simulation construction kit: cognitive process and educational implications. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching 11 (1), 39-52.

Steinberg, E.R. (1977). Review of student control of learning in computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 3 (3), 84-90.

- (1989). Cognition and learner control: a literature review. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 16 (4), 117-21.

Striley, J. (1988). Physics for the rest of us. Educational Researcher 17 (6), 7-10.

Strommen, E. & Lincoln, B. (1992). Constructivism, technology, and the future of classroom learning. Education and Urban Society 24, 466-76.

Tennyson, R. (1984). Application of artificial intelligence methods to computer-based instructional design: the Minnesota Adaptive Instructional System.. Journal of Instructional Development 7 (4), 17-22.

- & Christensen, D. (1988). MAIS: an intelligent learning system. In D. Jonassen, ed. Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware, 247-74. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Tobin, K.G., ed. (1993). The practice of constructivism in science education. Washington, DC: AAAS.

& Dawson, G. (1992). Constraints to curriculum reform: teachers and the myths of schooling. Educational Technology Research and Development 40 (1), 81-92.

Tripp, S.D. (1992). A skills matrix and its implications. Performance and Instruction 31 (6), 28-3 1.

& Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid prototyping: an alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology Research & Development 38 (1), 31-44.

Visonhaler, J. & Bass, R. (1972). A summary of ten major studies in CAI drill and practice. Educational Technology 1Z 29-32.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wetzel, C.D. (1993). Generative aspects of the computer-based educational software system (CBESS). Instructional Science 21, 269-93.

White, B. (1984). Designing computer games to help physics students understand Newton's laws of motion. Cognition and Instruction 1 (1), 69-108.

- (1992). A microworld-based approach to science education. In E. Scanlon & P. O'Shea, eds. New directions in educational technology, 227-42. New York: Springer.

- (1993). ThinkerTools: causal models, conceptual change, and science education. Cognition and Instruction 10 (1), 1-100.

- & Fredericksen, J.R. (1987). Causal model progressions as foundation for intelligent learning environments (Technical Report No. 6686). Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek & Newman).

Wittrock, M.C. (1990). Generative processes of comprehension. Educational Psychologist 24, 345-76.

-(1974). Learning as a generative process. Educational Psychologist 11, 87-95.

- (1978). The cognitive movement in instruction. Educational Psychologist 13, 15-29.

Woodward, J. & Howard, L. (1994). The misconceptions of youth: errors and their mathematical meaning. Exceptional Children 61 (2),126-36.