25.4 RESEARCH ON ACCESS

Research on access in the context of this chapter focuses on the point of access and the surrounding environment. Current research emphasizes electronic technologies, the design of those technologies, and users' beliefs about the technologies. However, issues of workspace, facilities use, and public policies must also be considered part of access research. Access has technical and social issues impacting on how users access information. Scholarly literature in the context of access relates to design, implementation, and planning. Discussions of access issues often iterate what has been done and result in prescriptions based on logic, common sense, or rationality (e.g., Vickery & Vickery, 1993). These writings are the application of local knowledge to solving general problems such as choosing workstation locations, providing effective sign systems, or deciding on the location for a new library building. Access research also draws on theory from other disciplines and applies findings from human factors, human-computer interaction, cognitive science, and cognitive ergonomics to library and information center problems.

While research on users has been a significant component of library research for many years, LIS research on access issues is a growing field. Researchers are exploring theoretical foundations and developing research agendas.

Much of the research has focused on aspects of technologies such as on-line public access catalogs and on-line search services. The range of potential research questions in access is also influenced by the research on users. Issues that may influence access include all of those characteristics, needs, and components that were part of user research. This review focuses on research and issues that are founded in LIS literature. Some sections include discussions of directions for future research rather than results of research. There are still many unknowns about access point issues and how the environment impacts information use.

Research on access and the components that affect access can be divided in four areas:

25.4.1 The Access Point

The point at which the user and the gateway to information come into contact is referred to in this chapter as the access point. Two aspects of research on the access point will be examined: the human-computer access point interface and the technologies of access. The technologies of access discussed include:

• On-line public access catalogs (OPACs or PACs)

• On-line search services (e.g., DIALOG, BRS, Internet)

• CD-ROMs and optical media

• Full-text databases, including hypermedia and multimedia applications

The focus in this section on the technologies of access will be the way in which they relate to the user. In the following section on information, the internal construction of information stored in the technologies will be discussed. This section then examines cognitive aspects of access, while the information section looks at engineering and mechanical aspects of access, specifically the storage and retrieval of information.

25.4.1.1. Human-Computer Interactions to Access Information. Users can access information directly. They can read a book, view a videotape, listen to a recording, go to the zoo, or enjoy a painting in a museum. These are direct-access interactions between a user and a specific item. This section looks at interactions that have been created to help users access large bodies of collected information. There are two predominating areas of literature in human-computer interaction. The first is advice, models based on practice, and examples of what seems to work. The second is psychologically based research, examining aspects of the interaction but specifically focusing on cognitive components of the user interface (see 21.4). This review examines the second type of literature, psychologically based research founded in LIS. The predominant research foundation for design and development in LIS is cognitive science.

Allen (1991) reviews the research implications of cognitive science in LIS for the design of ' information systems such as access points (for earlier reviews of cognition, human-computer interaction, and LIS, see Borgman, 1984, 1986; Daniels, 1986). The beginnings of cognitive research in LIS are believed to have originated in the International Workshop on the Cognitive Viewpoint in Ghent, 1977 (Belkin, 1990). From these origins, a design and research agenda was developed which continues to influence the development of user interfaces and human-computer interactions in LIS. This program is to improve information access and information transfer by developing models of users' knowledge that can be integrated with information system structures. The focus is on the point at which the user and the system come into contact: the access point.

Four types of knowledge related to users and cognitive models are suggested by Allen (1991): world knowledge, system knowledge, task knowledge, and domain knowledge. Each of these has implications for the interactions between users and systems. In addition, cognitive processes such as cognitive load, learning, memory, and problem solving are discussed and related to user knowledge. The methods used to research these issues are drawn directly from cognitive science. For example, Hancock-Beaulieu (1990) used interviewing and think-aloud protocol analysis in a problem-solving situation related to on-line catalog searching. Users adapted their search strategies and proceeded through a number of different stages in their attempts to interact with the public catalog system. The implications for design of access technologies from this study include developing on-line help for initially constructing a search strategy.

Allen (1991, pp. 23-24) concludes the review of cognitive research in LIS by identifying significant research issues for ongoing implementations:

• The need through further research efforts to increase the understanding of how cognitive processes, such as cognitive load, contribute to information behavior

• A continuing focus and ongoing research on knowledge-based information retrieval and the creation of prototype systems

• The development and testing of interface designs to guide search strategy creation and intelligent tutoring systems

• Greater emphasis in applying understandings of domain and task knowledge to increase the quality of information retrieval systems

Allen's review examined the agenda setting and research foundations of cognitive science in the design and development of LIS access points. The research discussed below looks specifically at the interface design and draws on the literature from human factors and ergonomics.

Shneiderman (1987) laid out three types of human-computer interaction: commands, menus, and direct manipulation. Research has compared and contrasted these interactions. Results have been mixed and inconclusive. Smith (1988) found that a menu improved performance with both novice and experienced users. Spavold (1990), working with 9- to 11-year-olds, also found that menus were more effective than command modes, as did Canter, Powell, Wishheart, and Roderick (1986) when studying novice users. However, Paap and Roske-Hofstrand (1988), in summarizing studies o f menu-based vs. command interfaces, conclude that novice users find commands more natural than menus. Taylor (1986) offered a choice, and 60% chose the menu mode, which shows preferences but does not confirm effective access.

The mixed results reported above could be due to comparisons of command languages with menus exhibiting different features. Menus have changed and developed over time, with features becoming both more complex and simpler depending on the application. Research issues related to menus include: order of reading (MacGregor & Lee, 1987a, 1987b), vertical position (Allen, 1983), depth and breadth (Lee & MacGregor, 1985), size of categories represented (Paap & Roske-Hofstrand, 1988), and categorical rather than alphabetical presentation (Hollands & Merikle, 1987). Research comparisons need to take into account these and other features as significant variables when comparing menus with command languages.

Direct manipulation is a more recent interaction category. It includes characteristics such as continuous representation of the object and physical actions that show an impact on the object that is both immediately visible and reversible. Ziegler and Fahnrich (1988), in a review of empirical studies, indicate that using a mouse to manipulate objects can cause problems for novice users. Chiang (1989) compares commands, menus, and direct manipulation, and concludes that direct manipulation may help overcome both conceptual and mechanical problems.

Another ongoing research area in human-computer interfaces is the creation of evaluation mechanisms. Nielsen and Molich (1989) report a heuristic evaluation process for user interfaces. Chin, Diehl, and Norman (1988) discuss the development of QUIS (Questionnaire for User Interaction Satisfaction), which has demonstrated reliable results over time. Hartson and Hix (1989) discuss the impact of rapid prototyping on ongoing interface evaluation. Gomoll (1990) lays out the 10 steps used at Apple Computer for observing user/computer interactions.

Shaw (1991) provides an overall review of the human-computer interface in information retrieval for LIS applications. The general principles of interface design are discussed, including display features, modes of interactions, and help/system messages. Research related to these three areas is examined, and implications for LIS research are discussed. Specific interfaces for information retrieval are also identified. Implications of these systems, such as on-line searching, CD-ROM, and on-line catalogs, are discussed in the following section.

Within LIS, the longest tradition of research on technologies of access relates to on-line search services and on-line public access catalogs (OPACs). It is only within the last few years that research has extended to other technologies such as CD-ROMs and more optically based information platforms. In addition, full-text access-including hypermedia/multimedia applications with sound, visuals, and moving images-is an emerging area. Internet (an example of an on-line search service with particular features) will also result in research related to access technologies.

25.4.2.1. On-Line Public Access Catalogs (OPACs). OPACs were replacements for card catalogs. They began as card catalogs represented on a computer screen. Initially OPAC interfaces were not much different from those associated with traditional card catalogs. Due to economic conditions and user preferences, OPACs have developed features different from card catalogs. Some OPACs are incorporating on-line search services, electronic encyclopedias, and other full-text and multimedia applications. Research compares different types of OPACs, looks at similar features, and creates generalizations for the further development of better OPACs (Cochrane & Markey, 1985; Matthews, 1986).

Larson (1991) reviews research related to subject searching in the on-line public-access catalog (OPAC. Lack of effective subject access is identified as a primary problem with OPACs. The needs of users for subject searching are examined. Subject searching accounts for more than half of all searches in on-line catalogs, and two problems are most common. Search failure occurs when users fail to identify information relevant to the questions they wish answered. Information overload occurs when the responses to a question are overwhelming in number. Four forms of enhancements for OPACs are recommended to improve subject access: classification changes, subject heading revisions, keyword searching improvements, and special indexes such as subject thesauri. Earlier reviews summarizing aspects of OPAC research and study include Borgman (1986), Cochrane and Markey (1983), Lunde and Copeland (1989), and Markey (1984).

On-line public access catalogs (OPACs) draw together many issues of relevance to researchers in LIS. OPACs are used to study user behavior, human-computer interfaces, information retrieval mechanisms, and record design (Yee, 1991). Earlier in this chapter, research about user behavior and interface design was discussed. Later in this chapter, research related to information retrieval and record sets will be discussed. Ibis section examines research in how

OPACs perform as a system and how users interpret their interactions with the system. The focus of these research studies is on the OPAC. It includes issues such as users perceptions and beliefs on how well OPACs work.

Early studies of OPACs included Hildreth's (1982) study of the computer-human interface as a window. It investigated aspects of the technology. Matthews, Lawrence, and Ferguson (1983), in a classic study for the Council of Library Resources (CLR), analyzed user requirements and behavior. The study determined users' attitudes and levels of satisfaction about on-line catalogs. Replications of the CLR study included Steinberg and Metz (1983) at Virginia Tech and Baldwin, Ostrye, and Selton (1988) at the University of Wyoming.

I A problem with card catalog studies was location, specific findings, and methods. The sites and the instruments were unique. It was difficult to draw conclusions and generalizations from the data collected. The CLR research provided a standard data collection instrument that could be used across situations and ensured that all users responded to the same set of questions (Broadus, 1983).

OPAC user research has consistently applied two methods: surveys and questionnaires (e.g., Matthews et al., 1983) and transaction log analysis (e.g., Kaske, 1988; Nielsen, 1986; Peters, 1989; Tolle, 1983). Focus groups (e.g., Markey, 1983), protocol analysis (e.g., Sullivan & Seiden, 1985), and observation (e.g., Solomon, 1993) have also been used. The survey questionnaire is the most popular research method for studying on-line catalog use in LIS (Peters, 1991). Surveys measure what users know, believe, and think about OPACs. Surveys can also ask for reports of behavior.

Actual behavior at an OPAC is most often measured through the use of transaction log analysis. This type of analysis can be accomplished at the macro- or microlevel. Macro-analysis combines information about OPAC usage and patterns (e.g., Kaske, 1988). Micro-analysis looks at how individual users make choices and the patterns of their searches (e.g., Tolle, 1983). Discussion of the merits and problems with transaction analysis constitutes a significant scholarly area in OPAC research (e.g., Cochrane & Markey, 1983; Crawford, 1987; Hildreth, 1985; Markey,* 1983; Weiskel, 1986).

Research has included aspects of the technology and information about beliefs of the users related to OPACs. Research on the technology of OPACs has resulted in a mixture of findings:

... the computer as an information retrieval tool solved some problems (e.g., keyword access to individual terms in author, title, and subject-heading fields), created others (e.g., inability to browse subjects, titles, and authors), and left some untouched (e.g., the provision of subject headings in the catalog that correspond to the language of users) (Solomon, 1993, p. 245).

Users studies have been more consistent in findings. Most library users report that they accept and like on-line catalogs (Peters, 1991).

Two studies of OPAC use are discussed to demonstrate trends in OPAC research. Solomon (1993) conducted a naturalistic study of elementary children's use of an OPAC. It is an example of qualitative research methods and theory that are beginning to be seen in many aspects of LIS research. Dalrymple and Zweizig (1992) completed a factor analysis of affective data gathered in comparing traditional card catalog use with OPAC use. It is an example of applying a quantitative analysis not generally used in LIS research to studying information access.

Research examining children's OPAC usage is limited (e.g., Borgman, Gallagher, Krieger & Bower, 1990; Borgman, Gallagher, Walter & Rosenberg, 1991; Marchionini, 1989; Edmonds, Moore & Balcom, 1990; Walter & Borgman, 199 1). Solomon's (1993) study is the most in-depth analysis of issues about children's OPAC usage and information retrieval patterns to date. The results of the study are based on approximately 900 transactions performed by about 500 students over the course of a school year. Recommendations for adding features that enhance children's OPAC use were suggested.

Solomon (1993) observed occasions of success using the OPAC (66% of the transactions) and occasions where breakdown occurred. Three factors contributing to success were: finding assistance, applying search strategies, and using common terms. Breakdown exhibited more complex situations including knowledge, rules, and skills breakdowns. Each of these three areas were further analyzed into specific categories.

The process of OPAC searching was also examined, including initiating actions, intentions, opening moves, and search strategies. Specific examples from the observations and extended analyzes of these categories were provided. For example, it was found that first-graders were more likely to use assistance as a search strategy than sixth-graders. Based on this study, Solomon (1993, p. 263) suggests that information retrieval systems for children should provide:

• Specific user tools (e.g., subject domains and their underlying content structures)
• General user mechanisms (e.g., navigation tools to explore a subject heading domain)
• Management tools (e.g., interactive programs to add locally generated cross-references

Dalrymple and Zweizig (1992) compared card catalog use with use of an OPAC. There were 20 subjects in each group, and each group was assigned the same problems to solve. After completing searches, subjects evaluated the results of the search and filled out an attitude questionnaire. Separate factor analysis solutions on the. 11 attitude questions were completed for each group. The on-line catalog group yielded two strong factors: benefits, which explained 54% of the variance, and frustration, which explained 31% of the variance. The card catalog group analysis resulted in similar factors: frustration, which explained 27% of the variance, and benefits, which explained 43% of the variance.

In addition, these attitudinal dimensions were compared with reformulation behavior (trying the search in different ways), user beliefs about the results of their searches, and perseverance measures. Reformulation showed a positive relationship in the on-line group, with feelings about benefits of the system. Perseverance (spending longer times on the searches) showed a relationship with feelings of frustration for both groups.

The consistency of dimensions across groups, even though loadings as first and second factors were reversed, has implications for future research design. If benefits and frustrations are important components of users' attitudes toward information access with OPACs, they could be built into research designs to increase understanding of user behavior. Dalrymple and Zweizig (1992) suggest applying this research direction to search behavior, information systems design, and bibliographic instruction.

25.4.2.2. Other Access Technologies: On-Line Services, CD-ROM, Full Text, Multimedia. OPACs are an access technology unique to library and information center environments. The first OPACs were designed, developed, and sold by libraries. Today private vendors are the primary developers of OPACs. Researchers can examine different questions through the use of OPACs, such as information access, information retrieval, and user behavior. At one time, the research was applied directly to the design of OPACs. Now the research is used by developers in the design of other types of access technology including: online search services, CD-ROM and optical media, full-text databases, multimedia and hypermedia, and Internet.

Historically each of these other access technologies could be considered unique, like OPACs, with special features assigned to each technology. However, technological features are merging across technologies, and even OPACs have full-text and multimedia features. Some resources are available in different formats, such as ERIC on-line, ERIC on CD-ROM, and ERIC as paper index or electronic encyclopedias, which can be paper, CD-ROM, or accessed on an OPAC. The processes and strategies needed to access the information stored in these merging technologies are more similar than they are different.

Shaw's (1991) review examines research aspects related to these different technologies. On-line searching is particularly sensitive to issues of front-end and menu development. CD-ROM also has research questions surrounding interface diversity and different possibilities for front-end access. In addition, CD-ROM has large graphics storage capabilities and has design and research problems related to retrieval of visual and moving images. Full-text databases are also seen to have front-end software research implications for interfaces with the user. Another research agenda with full-text databases is comparison of electronic systems with their paper counterparts. Joseph, Steinberg, and Jones (1989) compared a print and on-line version of an army manual. They found that initially new users preferred the print index and table of contents. However, after experience with the on-line system, most users preferred the keyword search option from the electronic access. Two studies discussed below are also examples of comparisons of print and electronic access.

Shaw (1991) concludes the review by summarizing the issues and problems of research in human-computer interaction in LIS:

• Research in human-computer interactions is cross-disciplinary and requires searching a variety of resources for converging information.
• Significant gaps exist in understanding the relative value of interface features such as graphical interfaces and command-mode interactions. The research shows contradictory findings.
• The impact of cognitive styles, eye-hand coordination, and previous experience could be intervening variables to help understand the contradictory findings.
• There are differences among researchers about how and what to study related to human-computer interfaces in information environments (pp. 178-179).

Another significant factor in electronic-access technologies has been the change from their use by professional search intermediaries to their use by searchers who wish the information. The design and implementation of information resources whether on-line, CD-ROM, full text, or multimedia now considers the novice as well as the trained professional. This requires research on user interfaces, search strategies, and expert systems. The systems and features that worked for professionals who were willing to learn command languages and technical process such as Boolean strategies are not effective for end users (Mischo & Jounghyoun, 1987). With remote access and a home market, vendors need to develop features that help novices complete sophisticated and complex searches as end users. Recent research related to users and intermediaries has included: individual differences (Borgman, 1989), interactions between users and intermediaries (Kuhlthau, Spink & Cool, 1992; Saracevic, Mokros & Su, 1990), remote users (Kalin, 1991), search moves (Wildemuth, de Bliek, He & Friedman, 1992; Fidel, 1990), and user behaviors (Belkin, Chang, Downs, Saracevic & Zhao, 1990; Wildermith, Jacob, Fullington, de Bleik & Friedman, 1991).

Research using CD-ROMs as the interface device is becoming more prevalent in LIS. Marchioni (1989; Marchionini & Liebscher, 1991) reported results on the use of electronic encyclopedias on CD-ROM. Marchionini (1989) examined elementary children searching on a full-text encyclopedia delivered via CD-ROM. Older searchers were more successful and took less time than younger searchers. Looking at search patterns showed that novices used highly interactive strategies. Marchionini and Liebscher (1991) looked at undergraduate student's mental models (see 5.3.7). These models were used to make quickly the transition from paper encyclopedias to a variety of electronic encyclopedias. Balaraman (1991) described a preliminary study examining the impact of individual differences on novice users of CD-ROMs. Large, Beheshti, Breuleux, and Renaud (1994) compared elementary students' use of a print and a CD-ROM encyclopedia. Four questions of differing complexity were searched by the students. The time

it took to complete the searches was approximately equal for both print and CD-ROM. Both groups exhibited good skills in choosing appropriate search terms. Students seemed able to use the CD-ROM interface with only a short training session.

Other electronic access devices that are of interest to LIS researchers include: computer conferencing (Rosenbaum & Snyder, 1991), electronic mail (Gluck, Coliz & Rosenbaum, 1991; Tsai, 1992), hypertext (Grumling, 1992; Marchionini, et al., 1990), Internet (Dillon, 1993), multimedia (Schamber, 1991), videotext (Case, 1991), and voice mail (Rice & Danowski, 1991).

25.4.3 The Work and Use Space

The environment immediately surrounding the access point has two implications for users. When approaching the access point (i.e., an OPAC, a CD-ROM, an Internet terminal, or a paper index), users make choices about whether or not they want to be in that space. Some characteristics of the immediate environment may interact positively with users' choice to try an access point, and others may create barriers or problems. Once at work or using an access point, the characteristics of the space, which enhance or inhibit ongoing use of the access technology, also will interact with the individual user.

Issues related to the first aspect of the access point environment, initial choice, have to do with affective considerations, physical necessities, and cultural preferences. The colors of the space, the height of the ceiling, the lighting, and the size of the space could influence users' affective responses. Particularly, types of physical spaces are necessary for effective use by disabled users, exceptionally tall or short people, children, and the aged. Cultural and personal preferences could affect how users react to very crowded spaces or very wide open spaces.

The use of access point space for work related to information access is also important to understanding what affects users. For example, provision of a sufficient writing area for taking notes, writing down citations, or opening indexes is critical to effective use of the access tool. Lighting and air quality may also impact use of the access space, particularly for users who work for long periods of time in one space. Long-term use of computer terminals also has implications for screen placement, keyboard height, chair design, and flexibility to rearrange and change the space.

There is little research in LIS about these aspects of information access (see 36.3). Most literature related to the use of access points or space is prescriptive or descriptive rather than research oriented. Suggestions are made for where to place OPACs in the overall library scheme, such as close to the entryway, by the reference desk, or next to the card catalog. Explanations of how particular libraries chose the color scheme for their children's room or the furniture for their CD-ROM stations are also part of the literature. Research either quantitatively or qualitatively based could be a valuable asset to understanding which aspects of the work and use space are significant factors in users' information access. Theories and methods from human factors research, such as the person-environment fit theory, could be effectively applied to use and workspace research.

The immediate environment is critical in users' choice of a particular access point once a library or information center has been entered. It interacts with the user choosing the reference librarian, the OPAC, the CD-ROM, the card catalog, browsing, or any of a number of possible access points in a library or information center. The overall building and facility may impact whether or not a user chooses an access point in a library or information center or goes elsewhere.

Research on the relationship of buildings and facilities to information access is another area in which research is emerging. The following issues could be considered in conducting this research:

• Impact of physical access-not only disabled access but also elderly, children, and others
• Affective impressions of the building and its "friendliness"
• Sign systems and way finding, including maps
• Architectural design and its interaction with cultural and sociocultu preferences
• Availability of public transportation
• Parking space and ease of accessibility

Geographical access to a library or information center is also a critical component in use of the access point, Geographic access begins to interact with social and cultural factors particularly related to economics and class. Libraries are often built and maintained where they are supported by a strong economic or tax base. Some areas, particularly in urban environments, are considered to be safer for locating libraries than other areas. In rural areas, the available money may allow for only a few libraries within a large geographical area. These factors mean that some users may not have the money or the experience to travel to the sources of information. It may also mean that some users may never see the library as part of their neighborhood or social environment.

Making information available via remote access has become a way to meet user needs, as discussed above. State libraries have developed mail services for users who do not have easy access to a local library or information center. Phone reference services are available in most public and academic libraries. Newer technologies such as Internet, dial-in access to OPACs, and proprietary services such as America Online, Compuserve, and Prodigy are all attempts to widen access. The proposal for a national electronic highway is also a possible method for increasing access to information. Research stills needs to be conducted both on the issues of geographical access described above and whether or not remote access technologies will make a difference in socioeconomic equality for information access.

OPAC research is the strongest component of access research in LIS. User preferences, menu development, search strategies, and interactions between users and technologies have been essential to the OPAC research agenda. This research also uses a variety of methods including surveys, questionnaires, attitude studies, experimental research, and naturalistic inquiry. Theoretical foundations are primarily psychological, looking at the interaction of cognition and OPAC features or the social psychology of individual responses to OPACs. Research on OPACs can examine features and processes of interest to the use of other electronic technologies. As features merge in the new technologies, issues such as screen design, direct manipulation, subject access, and remote connections can be studied across technologies. The foundational research in OPACs can be used as a guide to the research in access to other technologies.

Literature and research related to cognition and technological access is spread across a wide interdisciplinary content spectrum and must be accessed using many different search terms (see 24.6):

This broad coverage of literature and research can result in difficulty accessing significant and relevant information on a specific aspect of human-computer interaction and its cognitive relationships. Another problem in cognitive research in US is generalizability of findings compared to applicability (Allen, 1991, p. 18). Research focusing on existing systems may lack generalizability, while research on more general cognitive processes may have limited applicability.

Another way to conceptualize access is to think of issues in terms of social technologies and mechanical technologies. The mechanical technologies are the things themselves: the physical hardware, desks, circulations stations, buildings, and parking spaces that people must use in order to access information. The social technologies are the processes that interact with the mechanical technologies. They are socially and culturally engineered features of access and include such things as interface design, human computer interaction, user preferences, and social acceptability. In examining LIS research and scholarly writing about access, an interesting pattern emerges. With the exception of OPACs, the design of the things is generally not part of LIS. The mechanical technologies are created by structural engineers, physicists, computer scientists, and human factors engineers. LIS research on mechanical technologies is conducted to provide information for others or to help find instructional solutions to increase effective access to mechanical technologies. It is the social technologies that interact and result in the use of the access technologies that is the focus of LIS research.